The world’s biggest aircraft carriers are not mere vessels equipped to engage in warfare. With never-ending territorial disputes, an aircraft carrier symbolises prestige and power for global navies.

These new ‘battleships’ have been one of the most significant assets to the warfare merchandise of all nations. Ever since their inception, these ships have made a massive difference in the defence systems of several countries.

The biggest aircraft carriers are floating air bases equipped with a full-length flight deck capable of carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Acting as the capital ship of a naval fleet on a waterfront, these vessels can carry numerous aircraft, including fighters, strike aircraft, helicopters laden with efficient weapon systems, etc.

Most world powers are operating or building technologically advanced aircraft carriers to safeguard their maritime rights and interests. There are a total of 41 active aircraft carriers in operation by thirteen navies across the world.

While the US Navy has the most number of -eleven -aircraft carriers in service, the navies of China and the UK operate two aircraft carriers, and India, France, Russia, and Italy currently operate a single aircraft carrier each (However, India is ready to launch its homemade aircraft carrier in 2022).

In addition, countries such as Japan (4), France (3), Australia (2), Egypt (2), Brazil (1), South Korea (1), and Thailand (1) operate a total of fourteen small carriers that are capable of only carrying helicopters.

Here is a list of the top 10 most notable and largest aircraft carriers worldwide.

1. USS Gerald R Ford Class (CVN-78)

The world’s biggest aircraft carrier title belongs to the US Navy’s Gerald R Ford Class battleships. The first carrier in this class, USS Gerald R. Ford, was commissioned in May 2017, and the four remaining vessels announced for this class are under construction.

The Gerald R Ford, currently active in service, is 337m long with a beam of 78m. The vessels feature a total load displacement of 100,000t, and its 78m flight deck features an electromagnetic aircraft launch system and advanced arresting gear. USS Gerald R. Ford can carry over 75 aircraft and accommodate 4,539 personnel. It is fueled by two nuclear reactors and has RIM-162 Evolved Sea Sparrow missiles, Airframe Missiles or RAMS and Phalanx close-in weapon system or CIWS.

2. Nimitz Class, USA

The US Navy’s ten Nimitz class nuclear-powered aircraft carriers are the second-largest aircraft carriers in the world. They are certainly one of the best breeds and flaunt all the features such battleships require. Named after the World War II US Pacific Fleet commander Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the lead ship of this class, USS Nimitz, was launched in May 1975, and the tenth and last of the course, USS George H.W. Bush, was commissioned in January 2009.

With a total load displacement of 97,000t, these 332.8m-long aircraft carriers have a 4.5-acre flight deck capable of carrying over 60 aircraft. These ships can accommodate 3,000 to 3,200 ship company, 1,500 air wings, and 500 other crew. They are powered by two nuclear reactors and can reach a speed of over 30 kt.

They were constructed in 1968 and launched in 1972. Soon, they were re-launched as multirole carriers with a nuclear propulsion system.

3. Queen Elizabeth Class, UK

The largest aircraft carriers of the UK Royal Navy are the third-largest aircraft carriers in the world. The biggest warships ever built for the British Navy, the Queen Elizabeth Class aircraft carriers are also the second-largest non-US Navy warships after Japan’s Yamato-class battleships.

Among the Royal Navy’s two Queen Elizabeth Class aircraft carriers, HMS Queen Elizabeth was commissioned in December 2017, while HMS Prince of Wales was launched in December 2017 and commissioned in December 2019.

Both vessels have a displacement of around 65,000 tonnes and measure 280 meters in length. The vessels can embark on up to 40 rotary and fixed-wing aircraft. They can embark on 36 F-35B and four Merlin Helicopters. Featuring the latest technology and automated systems aboard, these vessels only require a crew of 679 for a combat operation.

4. Fujian, China

Jiangnan Shipyard of China Shipbuilding Industry Corporation in Shanghai launched the nation’s third aircraft carrier on 17th June 2022. China now has the highest number of aircraft carriers in the world after the US.

The Fujian aircraft carrier is named after the country’s eastern coastal province across from Taiwan. 

The 1st indigenous aircraft carrier, the new-generation Fujian (Type 003), is said to be more technologically advanced and efficient than China’s other two aircraft carriers.

The other two are Shandong (Type 001), commissioned in 2019 and the Liaoning ( Type 002), a second-hand carrier bought from Ukraine in 1998.

Fujian boasts a full-load displacement of around 80,000 tonnes, which is more than the other Chinese carriers and comparable to the aircraft carriers of the US Navy. It is 316 m long and has a beam of 76 m. 

It is also the nation’s first aircraft carrier to utilise an electromagnetic catapult for launching aircraft from the deck instead of a ski ramp used by Liaoning and Shandong carriers. Fujian also has a flat-top flight deck for smooth take-offs and landings.

5. Liaoning, China

The aircraft carrier in operation with China’s People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN), the type 001 aircraft carrier Liaoning, is the fourth largest aircraft carrier in the world. Initially planned as the second Kuznetsov-class aircraft for the Soviet Navy, the vessel was later purchased by China after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. It has an overall length of 304.5 m and an overall beam of 75 m.

The ship was rebuilt and commissioned for PLAN in September 2012. Currently classified as a training ship, Liaoning offers a platform for the Navy to experiment, train and become familiar with aircraft carrier operations. Displacing more than 58,000t (full load), Liaoning can carry around 50 aircraft, including fixed-wing planes and helicopters.

6. Shandong, China

The 2nd aircraft carrier of China, Shandong, was launched on April 26, 2017. Unlike its predecessor (Liaoning), the Shandong is China’s first domestically built carrier.

Both carriers are similar in size and use a STOBAR (Short Take-Off But Arrested Recovery) system to launch and recover aircraft. However, being constructed in recent years, Shandong features much more advanced technology and noticeable equipment, which makes it the lead aircraft carrier for China.

The Shandong measures 305 meters in length and has a beam of 75 meters with a total load displacement of 70,000 tons. It can carry a maximum of 44 aircraft on its deck.

7. Admiral Kuznetsov, Russia

Russia’s Kuznetsov class aircraft carrier is one of the best aircraft carriers currently in service. Currently serving as the flagship of the Russian Navy, the 305m-long Admiral Kuznetsov aircraft carrier, with a beam of 72m, has a full load displacement of 58,500t. With its multi-role capacity, this heavily armed ship can potentially serve as an aircraft carrier besides being laced with armaments that make it deadly enough.

Its 14,700m² flight deck facility can carry up to 33 fixed-wing aircraft and 12 helicopters. The aircraft carrier can accommodate Su-33, MiG-29K, Su-25UTG/UBP STOVL fighters, Ka-27S, Ka-27LD32, and Ka-27PLO helicopters. Admiral Kuznetsov can also house 1,960 ship companies, 626 air groups, and 40 flagstaffs abroad.

As of July 2021, Admiral Kuznetsov is out of service for a repair and refit. A falling 70-ton crane damaged it from the floating dry dock PD-50 in November 2018 that killed two during the refit. It is planned to go to an upgrade in June 2022.

8. INS Vikrant, India

INS Vikrant is an indigenous aircraft carrier that is the first aircraft carrier conceptualized and constructed in India. The construction happened in the Cochin Shipyard Limited. The ship has completed the sea trials and will be commissioned in the coming months (August 2022). The total project cost was approximately US$3.1 billion.

The loaded displacement of the ship is around 45.000 tons, and the ship measures 262m in length and 59m in width (Beam). Even though INS Vikramaditya is bigger in dimensions, INS Vikrant can carry a maximum of 40 aircraft on its deck and is technologically more advanced than INS Vikramaditya.

9. Charles De Gaulle, France

The first French nuclear-powered surface ship, Charles De Gaulle, is one of France’s most important flight carriers and has been in service since 2001. The ship, which has a total displacement of 36,000 tons with a 780X103X27.8 feet structure, is the only nuclear-powered carrier with navies other than the US Navy.

With a displacement of 42,500 tonnes, the battleship can carry up to 40 fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, including Rafale M, E-2C Hawkeye, Super Étendard, EC725 Caracal, AS532 Cougar, and SA365 Dauphin. The aircraft carrier can attain a maximum speed of 27 knots and has been provided with two K17 reactors for propulsion. Its design has been made considering the need for a battleship to show versatility and stealth. Known for its multirole, the ship is highly combatting friendly, with both assaulting and carrying roles.

10. INS Vikramaditya, India

The Indian Navy’s largest warship in service, INS Vikramaditya, also finds its place among the biggest aircraft carriers in the world. This 283.5-meter-long beam of 61 meters is a modified Kiev-class aircraft carrier that entered service in 2013.

Previously served the Soviet Navy and the Russian Navy under Baku and Admiral Gorshkov, respectively. India purchased this battleship in January 2004. With a displacement of 45,400t, INS Vikramaditya can carry a maximum of 36 aircraft, including 26 Mikoyan MiG-29K multi-role fighters and 10 Kamov Ka-31 AEW&C and Kamov Ka-28 ASW helicopters.

11. Cavour, Italy

The flagship of the Italian Navy, the Cavour aircraft carrier, has a full load displacement of 30,000t and features several defence systems, such as short-range defence systems, guns and decoy launchers.

With a 232.6m x 34.5m flight deck, Cavour can accommodate up to 20 aircraft, including AV-8B Harrier and JSF and EH101, AB212, NH 90 and SH3D helicopters. The 244-long aircraft carrier with a beam of 39m can also hold up to 24 main battle tanks. Its maximum speed is 16 knots, achieved with the help of six diesel generators.

12. Juan Carlos I, Spain

Juan Carlos I is an aircraft carrier of the Spanish Navy. It is named after the former Spanish King and is the largest ship ever constructed in the history of the Spanish Navy. It was launched in September 2009 and commissioned on September 30, 2010. 

The aircraft carrier is 230.8 m long and has a 32 m beam. It has a displacement of 27,079 tonnes and a range of 9000 nautical miles at 15 knots. It is powered by a diesel-electric propulsion system and can attain a maximum speed of 21 knots. 

It has a 202 m flight deck with a ski-jump ramp equipped with AV-8B Harrier II aircraft. It has a multi-functional garage and hangar area on 2 levels spanning 6000 square metres. 

Juan Carlos I has 11 decks, including a floating, heavy, hangar, medium, and flying deck. It can easily accommodate 1,400 personnel, including 890 embarked forces and 247 crew. 

It was designed to operate during amphibious operations, joint force projection, Disaster relief work and Humanitarian assistance.

13. Giuseppe Garibaldi, Italy

An Italian aircraft carrier, Guissepe Garibaldi is the 1st through-deck ship constructed for the Italian Navy. It is also the first Italian vessel constructed to operate fixed-wing aircraft.

She has short take-off and vertical landing aircraft and helicopters and has been a part of several combat operations off the coast of Libya, Afghanistan, Kosovo and Somalia. 

Also, it is the 14th ship of the Italian Navy to be named after 19th-century Italian General Giuseppe Garibaldi. 

The ship was built by Fincantieri at Monfalcone Shipyards near Trieste Gulf. She was launched on 11th June 1983 and commissioned in 1985. 

She is 180.2 m long and has a beam of 33.4 m with an 8.2 m draught. She has a full-load displacement of 14,150 tonnes and a top speed of 30 knots. Her range is 7000 nautical miles at 20 knots, and she can carry about 830 people. 

She has a 174 m long and 30 m wide flight deck and can accommodate about 18 aircraft. 

14. HTMS Chakri Naruebet, Thailand

HTMS Chakri Naruebet is the flagship of the Navy of Thailand. It is also the country’s only aircraft carrier, inspired by the design of the Spanish aircraft carrier Príncipe de Asturias.

It was built by Spanish shipbuilder Bazan and launched in 1996. It was commissioned into the Royal Thai Navy in 1997. It is the pride of the nation and even the region as it is the first aircraft carrier operated by a Southeast Asian country. 

Her home port is Chuk Samet Pier, Sattahip Naval Base, where she was named by HM King Bhumibol Adulyadej. 

The ship has 11 floors and measures 182.65 m lengthwise and 30.5 m breadthwise with a 6.12 m draught. She has a range of 10,000 nautical miles at 12 knots and can attain a maximum speed of 25.5 knots. 

It is also equipped with cutting-edge munitions and a long-range search radar system. It can carry up to 675 troops and has a 174.6-long and 27.5 m-wide flight deck and hangar space for 10 aircraft.

It is made for vertical take-off and landing aeroplanes and helicopters. It functions as a flagship, commanding the naval fleet during warfare and overseeing air defence and combat on the seas.

During normal times, it protects the nation’s interests at sea, assists in disaster relief and protects the marine environment.

15. TCG Anadolu, Turkey

Anadolu is an assault ship which can also be configured as a V/STOL aircraft carrier. It is named after Anatolia, which forms the majority of the Turkish landmass. 

Construction began on 30th April 2016 at Sedef Shipbuilding Inc. in Istanbul, and the keel was laid on 7th February 2018. It was commissioned on 10th April 2023. 

It is designed in such a way that it meets all the requirements of the Turkish Armed Forces, such as long-distance military combat and humanitarian relief operations. 

It is also the world’s first drone carrier. Interestingly, 70% of the ship was built using local resources over a period of 7 years. 

Anadolu is 231 m long and 32 m wide and can carry helicopters, too. It has 27,079 tonnes of displacement and a 6.9 m draught. 

Conclusion

Hence, aircraft carriers are a vital component of naval warfare, and their importance is increasing in the modern age when countries are willing to invest a lot in military expenditure. 

The largest aircraft carriers in the world are marvels of technology and engineering. They have a diverse range of capabilities, going from power projection to humanitarian aid and disaster relief. 

They are not only massive in size but have several risks associated with their operations and maintenance. Nonetheless, countries should try to develop new aircraft carriers that are less harmful to the environment by creating sustainable technologies. 

You might also like to read

• Top 5 Biggest Aircraft Carriers In The World
• INS Vikramaditya – The New Air Craft Carrier of the Indian Navy
• USS Nimitz: One of The Biggest War Ships in the World
• Sea Freight Vs Air Freight – The Main Differences
• Watch: Construction Of US Navy’s Future Aircraft Carrier John F. Kennedy

Disclaimer: The author’s views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used in the article, have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendations on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

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Have you ever imagined a ship that can float both normally (horizontally, like we all know) and in an inverted position, perpendicular to the water’s surface? As weird as it may sound, something like this exists! Or rather, it existed.

R/P FLIP or Floating Instrument Platform was a floating offshore ocean research platform-like structure that existed for almost 60 years until it was retired in 2021 and stands scrapped as of 2023.

A first (and till now the only) of its kind, this structure was capable of floating and operating both in the normal horizontal orientation on the water surface, like all other ships, and in a 90-degree flipped position, perpendicular to the water surface, with its majority being submerged.

Owned by the Office of Naval Research, a technological research and development branch under the US Navy, and operated by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography (under the University of California, San Diego), this floating structure was conceived to contribute to underwater research as a part of the SUBROC submarine program.

However, this engineering marvel has contributed immensely to eclectic areas of study and explorations for nearly six decades. The name FLIP here alludes to the abbreviation of its technical name (Floating Instrument Platform) and its typical behaviour of flipping or turning by a whole right angle.

Whether to call this idiosyncratic and trailblazing marine structure a vessel or a platform has always been contentious. While this structure resembles a strange combination of both a ship and an offshore structure, it was more accurately alluded to as a platform since only the front portion of it resembles a ship (from bow to a few frames aft), and it does not have any means of propelling on its own.

Background behind the Flip Ship

Underwater research for a wide variety of purposes has been pervasive for a very long time. The primary objective behind this historical structure is to measure variances in phase and amplitude of sound waves due to thermal gradients and changing topology distribution as a part of its underwater acoustics study for the US Navy SUBROC Program.

Moreover, during the late 50s, there was an augmented amount of attention in the oceanographic domain to study waveforms and patterns and map seafloor nature more comprehensively.

As an initial effort, a naval submarine, USS Baya, was employed to conduct the research. However, there were problems. Firstly, the vessel encountered persistent stability problems due to constant wave action, especially the excess amount of yaw motions.

This impeded the ability to obtain proper optical or electromagnetic reference. Moreover, due to the ability of the submarine to delve only to a certain depth, some margin of error remained during the measurements. These were further disrupted due to effects like underwater noise and other disturbances.

Since, during those times, advanced technologies and remote digital means to study underwater features were limited, there was a pressing need to work out a plan to conduct underwater research in a physically more viable way such that not only there is better visibility but also lesser errors and inaccuracies in terms of the data collected.

Henceforth, to attain these requirements, two very important aspects were stressed:

• Maximum possible depth for data collection
• Minimal level of disturbances and effects due to waves, currents, tides, and other disturbances during the study

Thus, there was a need to have something like an offshore structure, like a SPAR, that caters to stability in response to high seas and is disposed of well enough to collect all relevant oceanographic data at greater depths without hindrance. However, at the same time, it also needed to be sufficiently designed to be towed from place to place when required, like a vessel.

Hence, after conducting several experiments and numerical analysis for such a design feasibility, the FLIP configuration was conceived in 1962, which optimised all the research requirements as well as was a cross-over of both a ship and an offshore structure like a SPAR, where stability is high in both horizontal and vertical configurations. Moreover, The vessel was less responsive to torsional effects under high pressure.

Design Philosophy and Technical Characteristics of the Flip Ship

The vessel is shaped like a spoon or a baseball bat, where the front part resembles a ship, and the majority resembles a slender tubular structure, like a SPAR, often known as the handle.

The FLIP SHIP is about 108 metres or 355 ft. long., with a maximum beam of about 8 metres, where the vessel-like projection ends a few frames from the bow. The handle spans about 300 ft long, while the ship-like bow region accounts for the remaining 50 ft.

The vessel has a maximum displacement tonnage of about 700 GT. Under normal circumstances, it floats like a normal vessel with a draft of about 3.5 to 4 metres.

During operations, the tanks in the long, slender, and tubular structure known as the handle are pumped with water up to 700 tons of capacity and, at the same time, pump air through compressors into the tankage at the ship-like bow region.

These differential weights cause the flooded aft portion to sink and, simultaneously, the front bow region to rise, aligning itself to an orientation of 90 degrees. Now, the structure behaves like a SPAR platform or a buoy, where it is stable and remains vertically suspended in water till an immersion depth of 300 ft.

The structure was also capable of being moored to 5000 ft depths. Sometimes, for extra stability, an aft propeller fan rotating about the vertical axis of the platform was deployed. The protruding bow region extends about 50 feet (about a five-storey building) above mean sea level and resembles an upturned vessel. The entire process of flipping or tilting takes hardly 30 minutes.

At this configuration, the structure is as stable as any other offshore platform, like a SPAR, and exhibits very little response to external disturbances, like waves and currents. It has been seen that 30 ft of a wave can cause oscillations hardly up to 3 ft vertically for the structure. At such high depths, the extraction of oceanographic data using the required apparatus was much easier and free of external disturbances.

Likewise, while again re-orienting it back to horizontal configuration, the ballast tanks in the handle region were discharged, and about 3000 cubic feet of air was forcibly pumped through the compressors. At the same time, the air tanks in the bow region were expelled. Once the vessel slowly aligned back level with the waterline, the air tanks in the forward region were again filled with ballast such that the structure floated like a normal vessel at a required draft.

FLIP was made up of Tri-ten high-grade special steel. The platform did not have any propulsive capabilities. When towed, it could attain low speeds of 7 to 10 knots. The platform could carry a complement of (11 research/operations personnel + +5 dedicated crew) and had an endurance of about a month without replenishment.

There were two research spaces with the necessary equipment. To sustain lives on board, the structure has two 150 kW diesel generators and one 40 kW auxiliary generator as a backup. There was a freshwater tank with a capacity of about 1500 gallons supplied by a reverse osmosis replenishment system rated at 31 gallons per hour.

The most interesting feature of this structure was the accommodation area. What happened when the vessel flipped?

Interestingly, the design of these spaces was also such that they were usable in either configuration. Essentially, the bulkheads became floors, and the floors became decks, and vice-versa! Likewise, the arrangement spaces were also made to cater for both orientations.

For example, there were sinks at both horizontal and vertical orientations, as shown. There were doors in both orientations. Some outfitting items like beds, bunkers, or cooking stoves were made on pivoted gimbals, so they self-adjusted flexibly depending on the orientation.

Besides acoustics, the platform was used for a wide range of research utilities like studying waves, ocean water chemistries, temperatures and pressures, underwater topology, bathymetric studies, underwater magnetometry and electrostatics, and meteorological studies.

The structure consisted of various equipment, from hydrophones to sensors to high-frequency SONARs. The communication and navigation equipment range includes Gyros, GPS, RADARs, VHFs, INMARSATS, and so on.

After operating for almost 60 years, the FLIP SHIP was retired in 2021. Though the design was revolutionary, it has yet to be further replicated. In the age of cutting-edge technology and digital means to extract even the most remote data sources, operating something like this is redundant. However, this masterpiece’s contribution to underwater studies and research remains unmatched.

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Disclaimer: The authors’ views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendations on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared, or used in any form without the permission of the author and Marine Insight.

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Submarines are an important part of any country’s Naval Fleet. They can travel underwater without being detected and spy on the enemy or even deploy lethal weapons, lay mines around ports, sink ships without getting noticed and fire missiles precisely, destroying their targets.

Some of the world’s fastest submarines are nuclear-powered. They utilise nuclear reactors to generate steam that powers turbines and propellors, allowing the submarines to travel at high speed when submerged for longer durations without coming to the surface.

Soviet-era K-222 achieved the title of fastest submarine in the world when it achieved a speed of 44.7 knots in 1971. The Akula Class Submarines of Russia are also known for their speed, attaining around 35 knots. The U.S also has a sophisticated fleet of naval submarines, such as the Seawolf Class and Virginia Class.

There are diesel submarines, too, and though they are usually a little slower than their nuclear counterparts, even they can attain impressive speeds. For instance, the German Type 212A Submarine can reach a speed of 20 knots, and so can other submarines like those of the French Scorpene-Class and the Gotland Class Subs of Sweden.

A submarine’s speed is determined by many factors like its size, propulsion system and water conditions. However, it is important to remember that speed is not the only consideration when talking about submarine design since stealth and silent functioning are equally important.

Let’s take a closer look at the 5 fastest submarines in the world that are currently in service and some of the ones that have been decommissioned.

1. USS Seawolf

Also called the SSN-21, this nuclear-powered fast attack sub is the lead ship of her class and the 4th submarine in the U.S Navy named after the seawolf, a solitary fish which looks scary due to its appearance.

Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics was awarded the construction contract, and her keel was laid down in 1989. It was launched in 1995 and commissioned two years later, in 1997.

The submarine is 108 m long and 12 m wide. It has an 11 m draft, two steam turbines, a shaft and a pump-jet propeller. It can attain a maximum speed of 35 knots when underwater and 18 knots and more when on the surface.

Its armament includes eight torpedo tubes for weapons, including 50 Tomahawk land attack missiles, harpoon anti-ship missiles, and Mk 48 guided torpedos.

The Seawolf Class of the U.S Navy has two more submarines: the USS Connecticut and USS Jimmy Carter. Although it was initially decided that the class would have 29 submarines, budget constraints led to the development of just three such submarines.

Each submarine of this class cost around 3 billion dollars, making it the most costly US Navy fast attack sub.

2. HMS Ambush

This Astute-Class Nuclear Attack Submarine belongs to the Royal Navy. It was ordered in 1997 from GEC’s Marconi Marine, presently called BAE Systems Submarine Solutions.

The submarine was laid down in 2003, named in 2010 and launched in 2011. She completed her sea trails in 2012 and was commissioned at HM Naval Base Clyde in 2013.

HMS Ambush is 97 m long, 11.3 m wide and has a 10 m draught. It can attain a maximum speed of 30 knots when submerged.

The nuclear reactor of Ambush does not require refuelling in her 25-year career. This sub can also purify air and water and go worldwide without resurfacing. The only limitation is that it can carry just three months of food and water for 98 officers and ratings.

It can accommodate 38 weapons in 6 torpedo tubes, each being 21 inches long. The submarine can use Tomahawk Block IV missiles for land attacks with a 1600 km range and Spearfish torpedoes.

There are 7 Subs in this class, including HMS Astute, the lead ship of this class. These submarines were built to counter the Soviet submarines, the fastest in the world at the time.

Hence, after conducting research, it was decided that the Astute class should have a revolutionary design, an enhanced nuclear propulsion system, an integrated sonar suite, and many other features.

3. USS Virginia

USS Virginia also referred to as SSN-774, is a nuclear cruise missile attack sub and the lead ship of her class.

Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics Corporation in Groton was given the contract for her construction in 1998, and her keel was laid in 1999. Launched in 2003, she became the first submarine of the U.S Navy to be designed on a computer.

It has a unique feature, a photonics mast, allows the designer to keep its control room in a less constrained space. It has an all-digital ship and ballast control systems operated by senior watchstanders and a pressure chamber to deploy divers, SEALs, and other special forces while submerged.

USS Virginia has a displacement of 7800 tonnes and measures 115 m lengthwise and 10.4 m breadthwise. It has a 9.8 m draft and a speed of 25 knots.

The sub has a nuclear reactor, two steam turbines, a single-shaft pump-jet propellor and a secondary propulsion motor. It can accommodate 134 officers and enlisted personnel.

USS Virginia’s armament includes 12 VLS tubes, four torpedo tubes for Mk-48 torpedoes and a BGM-109 Tomahawk.

Virginia Class Submarines are made for various missions, including anti-submarine warfare, intelligence gathering, surveillance, etc. They were made to replace the Los Angeles class of subs, most of which have already been decommissioned.

4. Imperator Aleksandr III

This Borei-Class Nuclear Powered Ballistic Missile Submarine is a part of the Russian Navy. It was named after Alexander III of Russia. This submarine is equipped with 16 nuclear-tipped Bulava intercontinental ballistic missiles.

The Borei is the first new generation of underwater vessels that Russia launched since the Cold War.

Built by Sevmash, the sub was laid down in 2015, launched in 2022, and commissioned on 11 December 2023.

It displaces 14,720 tonnes when surfaced and 24,000 tonnes when submerged. It is 170 m long and 13.5 m wide with a 10 m draught.

Imperator Alexandr III can reach a speed of 25 knots and can support a complement of 130 officers. It carries 16 R-30 Bulava SLBMs, six torpedo tubes and an RPK-2 Vyuga anti-submarine missile.

5. Shang-Class Submarines

Shang Class is a family of second-generation nuclear-powered attack submarines constructed by China Shipbuilding Industry at Bohai Shipyard in Huludao, China’s Liaoning Province.

There are 6 Shang-Class subs in service with the Chinese Navy, including Shang I class SSNs or Type 093, Shang II Class or Type 093A and Shang III Class SSNs, also called Type 093B. The Type 093A and Type 093B are the improved versions of the Type 093 submarine.

The Shang Class Subs are 107 m long, with a beam of 11 m and a 7.5 m draught. With a 7000-tonne displacement, they have a water-drop-shaped hull, a pair of fin-mounted hydroplanes and four diving planes for controlling the motion of the submarine.

It can accommodate 100 crew members and has a computerised fire control system. It also has a surface search radar, radar warning receiver and advanced direction finder. Powered by a pressurised water nuclear reactor engine, it can attain a maximum speed of 30 knots.

Its six torpedo tubes can launch Chinese and Russian anti-submarine and anti-ship torpedoes.

World’s Fastest Submarines That Were Decommissioned

1. Soviet K-222

K-222 was a Papa Class nuclear cruise missile Submarine of the Soviet Navy during the Cold War Era. Although the Soviets thought it to be an unsuccessful design, upon completion, it turned out to be the fastest submarine in the world and the first to have a titanium hull.

The sub was given many names, such as K-18 in the initial phase, which was changed to K-162 when it was being built, and finally, it was called K-222 in 1978.

The K-222 displaced 5,197 tonnes when surfaced and 7,000 tonnes when submerged. It was 106.92 m long and 11.5 m broad. It had two nuclear reactors and attained a speed of 44 knots or 81 km per hour when submerged. It had a complement of 82 and an endurance of 70 days.

The K-222 was envisaged since the Soviet Government was not satisfied with the Echo Class of nuclear submarines, which came to the surface for firing missiles. Hence, in 1958, it authorised a program for building a submarine that would be fast and could launch missiles while remaining submerged.

The submarine was commissioned in 1970 and was armed with ten short-range anti-ship cruise missiles and four torpedo tubes to destroy American aircraft carriers. It was a part of the Soviet Red Banner Northern Fleet in the 1970s; however, cracks in her hull led to an extended repair period from 1972 to 1975.

There was an accident in her nuclear reactor in 1980. She went to her last patrol in 1981, after which she was removed from service and scrapped in 2010.

2. Soviet Alfa-Class

The Alfa Class, also called Project 705 Lira, was a class of nuclear attack subs in service with the Soviet Navy from 1971 to the 1990s, and one served the Russian Navy till 1996.

They were the fastest subs ever built, and only the K-222 exceeded them in submerged speed. They displaced 2300 tonnes when on surface and 3200 tonnes when submerged.

They were 81.4 m long and 9.5 m wide and could attain a speed of 41 knots when submerged. Alfa Class subs had a complement of 31 officers and carried six torpedo tubes, 53-65K torpedoes, VA-111 Shkval torpedoes and 24 mines.

The Project 705 submarines were unique since they had a titanium hull and a lead-bismuth-cooled reactor as a power source, reducing the reactor’s size compared to traditional designs, reducing the submarine’s size and allowing it to attain a high speed.

However, its reactor lifetime was short and must be kept warm when not used. Hence, the subs were kept in ports and used as interceptors for a dash in the North Atlantic.

Conclusion

Although nuclear-powered submarines were a powerful force to reckon with when commissioned, some, like the Alfa-class ones, were quite noisy despite their impressive speed. These submarines played a pivotal role in gathering intelligence, conducting covert operations, and deterring adversaries.

Any submarine that can reach a speed of 25-30 knots, is silent and loaded with the most advanced weapons is ideal for naval operations, as speed is not the only factor determining a submarine’s efficiency.

As submarine technology progresses, we could witness more advanced submarine classes that would be true naval assets and ensure national security in an increasingly complex geopolitical environment.

You might also like to read-

• The Biggest Nuclear Submarine in the World – Typhoon Class Submarines
• Introduction to Submarine Design
• Peral Submarine – The World’s First Electric Battery Powered Submarine
• Submarine Design: Unique Tanks On a Submarine
• Top 10 Biggest Submarines in the World

Disclaimer: The author’s views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used in the article, have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendations on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared or used in any form without the permission of the author and Marine Insight.

5 Fastest Submarines in the World appeared first on Marine Insight - The Maritime Industry Guide

A tug, or more commonly a tugboat, is an assistance boat which helps in the mooring or berthing operation of a ship by either towing or pushing a vessel towards the port.

A tug is a particular class of boat which helps mega-ships enter or leave a port. In addition to towing the vessel towards the harbour, tug boats can also be engaged to provide essentials, such as water, air, etc., to a vessel.

Tug boats are also essential for non-self-propelled barges, oil platforms, log rafts, etc. Due to their solid structural engineering, tugs are small but relatively powerful machines.

Their propulsion system is the main reason behind their enormous strength. Some secondary functions of a tug boat, along with easing mooring operation, are listed below:

• They can work as salvage boats and icebreakers.
• They can also have fire fighting accessories to assist in port or barges.
• They are the most critical marine vessels, acting as saviours to ships in hard times, such as in narrow canals and lousy weather.

Most tugboats can also venture into the ocean, but some do not have that propulsion power, like river tugs. River tugs are towboats designed to help out in rivers and canals. Their varied hull types make it dangerous for them to venture into the open ocean.

Renowned tugboat builders include Ranger Tugs, Florida Bay, American Tug, Nordic Tug and Tugboat. They make inboard, outboard, outboard-4S, and other diesel and gas fuel propulsion systems.

Tug boats are known for their moderate draft and broader beam, making them suitable for various commercial and recreational boating activities in coastal, inshore and offshore locations. Tugboats can carry about 6 to 8 passengers or guests.

Applications Of A Tug

The usage and functions of tugs vary from port to port, as different ports have different requirements and intakes. The common thing is pushing or towing mega boats or barges. Their usage depends on the following factors:

• Port traffic volume,
• Types of ships to be served by that tug,
• Navigational obstacles to be catered to,
• Conditions of environmental protection,
• Local laws and
• Domains to be carried by a tug

The tug boats were among the first to have a steam propulsion engine, which the diesel engine has replaced today.

An average tug boat has 680-3400 horsepower engines (500-2500 kW), but those which are larger and venture out into deep waters have engines with a power close to 27200 hp (20000 kW) and a power: tonnage ratio ranging between 2.20-4.50 for large tugs and 4.0-9.5 for harbour tugs. These are incredibly high ratios, especially considering the ratio of cargo ships or vessels varies between 0.35 and 1.20.

Since a tug boat’s manoeuvrability is one of its assets, all engine developments have focused on improving it without compromising the vessel’s strength and power over the years. Thus, the transition from paddle wheels to propellers.

Classification Of Tugs Based on Purpose

Based on purpose, they serve marine tugs can be of two types:

1. Escort Tugs: The tugs designed generally to escort and manoeuvre ferries and barges to their destination are known as escort tugs.

2. Support Tugs: These tugs provide support services for offshore and towing operations. These tugs play a significant role in berthing operations.

Mainly, tugs used in the marine industry are of three types, which are listed:

1. Conventional tug
2. Tractor tug and
3. Azimuth stern drive tug

1. Conventional Tug

These are the tugs we have been using since the start. They are made using the oldest known principle of tug development. The conventional tug has less manoeuvring capability but is still used in almost all ports worldwide.

With technological advancements, tugs are fitted with diesel engines with either one or more propellers. Single propeller tugs are classified into right-handed conventional and left-handed conventional tugs.

Right-handed conventional tugs are more common and likely to be used than left-handed ones. These are highly reliable.

The essential components of conventional tugs are briefed as follows:

• These have a classic rudder.
• A towing hook is provided in the centre of the tug. Along with other components of tug positioning, a hook is of enormous importance. The safety and performance of the tug boat mainly depend on the towing point location. When a gob line accompanies the towel hook, this point can be taken towards the aft; its distance is reduced from its original value of 0.45 times LWL to minimise tug manoeuvring.
• Its stern consists of the power plant complex.

Configuration of propeller used

Screw propeller — In the “conventional” tugboat, the propelling device is generally diesel driven. The propeller develops thrust in water and is responsible for ships’ movement. These tugboats are designated based on several propellers in them:

• Single screw tug implies one conventional propeller tug,
• Twin-screw tug implies a two-propeller traditional tug and
• A triple screw tug implies three classic propeller tugs.

In conventional screw propeller tugs, a moveable nozzle and rudders are provided, but the whole propeller is immovable or fixed.

Advantages

The main advantages or features of conventional tugboats are as follows:

• The construction of traditional tugs is quite simple and requires less maintenance, so the maintenance and construction costs of these tugs are meagre compared to the two types of tugs.
• These are self-sufficient and thus require no support system.
• The smaller the propeller, the larger the open water.
• These tugs have the upper hand and maximum efficiency in towing for port-to-port.
• These assist with pushing and tugging operations while carrying towing on a line.
• The operation cost is relatively low and economical while working with moderate-sized vessels.

Disadvantages

There may be certain disadvantages of conventional tugboats, and these are briefed as follows:

• The design principle is ancient; thus, it degrades performance standards.
• They are unidirectional and cannot work in the reverse direction until provided with a reduction gear to facilitate reverse flow.
• There are more chances of cavitation in these tugs.
• These tugs’ stability and strength are less than the other two.
• Due to obsolete design principles, their usage is limited to small and medium boats, so azimuthal stern drive and tractor tugs are employed to assist the mega ships.
• The repositioning of the tugs is relatively slow due to the limited manoeuvring capacity.
• There are more chances of capsizing or overturning the vessel, which results in fatal accidents. A release hook is required to overpower this issue of capsizing and halting the development of girthing.
• Conventional tugs have low values of astern power

2. Tractor Tug

The key to the tractor lies in using a 2-multidirectional propulsion unit, some of which are like large rotating outboard motors, with others consisting of rotating vertical blades.

They enable the tug’s thrust units to be placed side by side, more or less under the bridge, facilitating spectacular manoeuvrability in the right hands.

The towing point can be placed much nearer the stern to get maximum output from the propulsion units, and therefore, the thrust is always outside of the towing point, thus creating a joyous turning moment.

The rotating disc decides the magnitude of the force of thrust. Tractor tugs’ versatility is further enhanced by working the tug’s towline directly from a winch drum with a remote joystick controlled from the bridge. The tug master can thus alter the span of the towline at his will and with considerable ease. Their precision in manoeuvring makes them the most widely used tugs.

Advantages:

It is the most critical type of tug, and a tractor tug has many positive points. Some of its advantages are briefed as below:

• These are the only tugs which provide full thrust over 360 degrees.
• They have rapid power-on response time and are well known for their outstanding manoeuvrability.
• In contrast to conventional tugs, tractor tugs are adaptable to repositioning swiftly at the pilot’s will or on demand of the towing job in which they are employed. Thus, they are readily available tugs with high-efficiency values.
• Their straightforward control systems pose a shallow risk of girthing or capsizing.
• These have extraordinary performance and fast speed.
• They can effectively overcome the forces of interaction with ships at close distances.
• They can work efficiently in sideways movement due to the close location of the propulsion unit to the turning point.
• They have improved operational capability in restricted areas such as a lock flow channel.
• In these types of tugs, a rudder is not required, and the use of a rudder can be eliminated.
• They have reliable and robust propulsion units.

Disadvantages

Tractor tugs are the most effective and potent sort of tugs. As everything has specific cons and pros, these have certain loopholes, mainly their complexity and cost. Other drawbacks of these tugs are as follows:

• These kinds of tugs have less bollard pull than ASD tugs.
• They are considered to have very high capital investment costs, implying a lot of money is required to buy and maintain these tugs. In short, it confers that the initial and maintenance cost of tractor tugs is very high.
• The repair and maintenance of complex under-water units of these tugs are pretty expensive
• Handling in an open seaway might be poor with the short distance between the pivot point and the thrust creating a short turning lever
• Heeling angles with full side thrusts may be up to 21 degrees with some tugs. Therefore, the risk of damage can exist when lying alongside a ship
• Sophisticate under-water units may be damaged on grounding
• A draft may be up to 5m, which is significant in comparison to conventional tugs
• The retraining of a traditional tug master is essential to maximise a tug’s potential fully

3. Azimuthal Stern Drive (ASD) Tugs 

These tugs are midway between conventional and tractor tugs as these utilise some of the benefits of both traditional and tractor pulls. It can have two towing locations, one forward and one amidship, and the main propulsion is from two rotating azimuth units, which are placed like a traditional twin screw tug.

Advantages

These are considered more efficient than conventional tugs but less efficient than tractors. The significant advantages of using ASD tugs are as follows:

• Better directional stability at speed
• They are more suitable hull form for open waters and working in a seaway
• They have improved the bollard pull
• The azimuth units are easy to withdraw for maintenance and repair
• The maximum heel with side thrust is less than 15 degrees, compared to tractor tugs, which have a twenty-one-degree value.
• These tugs have a shallower average draft of 3m

Disadvantages

These tugs are challenging to work with as compared to tractor tugs, and other drawbacks of working with these tugs are as follows:

• The side-stepping ability of ASD tugs is not so good.
• The squat at the stern and flooding of the aft deck have been acquainted with certain types when backing with full power.
• They are still susceptible to girting or capsizing when using the aft towing position.
• These types of tugs are slightly more at risk from the interaction effects.
• These have somewhat Complex control systems.
• These tugs are more susceptible to rubbish damage in propellers
• It is not uncommon for 99 % of all towing to be limited to a forward position

Other Miscellaneous Types Of Tugs

Along with these classifications mentioned above, some other miscellaneous types of tugs are briefed as below:

1. Tractor Tugs With Cycloidal Propellers

Before the Second World War, tugboats had high power ratings and large tonnage capacities, and the propeller used was cycloidal to facilitate manoeuvrability; these were renowned as Cycloidal Tugboats. Voith Schneider propeller (VSP) is an advancement of a cycloidal drive. It is excellent at manoeuvring operations, so it became a perfect choice for ferries and barges.

2. The Carousel Tug

The Dutch developed the Carousel Tug, which emerged as an award-winning Maritime innovation in 2006. It consists of interlocking inner and outer rings, the former connected to a vessel and the latter with the tug’s body attached to a towed ship through winches or hooks.

3. Reverse Tractor Tugs

The tractor tugs are termed reverse tractor tugs if they have Z-drive aft-mounted propulsion units. These reverse tractor tugs don’t have a skeg and work efficiently in escorting. These tugs have fewer fatigue issues than tractor tugs due to the unavailability of flat plate skeg. Generally, ASD tugs serve as reverse tractor tugs.

4. Combi-Tugs

A bow thruster and a nozzle with steering are fitted with a conventional Screw Tug to improve manoeuvrability. These modified tugs, along with additional devices like a thruster and steered nozzle, equipped with the latter devices are referred to as “Combi-Tugs”. Combi-Tugs are preferably modified with twin-screw conventional tugs to have maximum efficiency.

5. Z-PELLER

It can have two towing locations, one forward and one amidship, and the main propulsion is from two rotating azimuth units, which are placed like a traditional twin screw tug. Azimuthing propulsion unit replaces conventional shafts and propellers, which allows 360-degree rotation about the vertical axis.

6. Giano Tug

The Giano Tug is highly stable and can serve the purpose of both support and escort tug. It is a high-tech tug which allows remote manoeuvring through VSAT or 4G connections. Its 360-degree rotation and excellent side-stepping speed made it to the top in the order of standards of tugs.

7. Eco-Tugs

Hybrid technology tugs or tugs with LNG as a running fuel are categorised as eco-tugs. These tugs serve the same purpose of escorting and supporting as the conventional tugs, but without harming and polluting the marine ecosystem.

8. Ice Tugs

These tugs escort ferries or barges and serve as icebreakers or salvage boats to make the ferries and barges speed up to their destination.

The Most Powerful Tug in the World

“The title of most powerful tugboat crowns Farstad Shipping’s Far Samson by the Guinness World Record, which achieved an astounding four hundred twenty-three tons bollard pull during testing.” The Spanish shipyard launched a groundbreaking, powerful tug boat to supply the Luleå, Sweden Port.

But presently, Gondan Shipyard promises to build and deliver an ice-breaking towing tug, which is assumed to bag the ticket for the most potent hybrid tug in the World.

Robert Allan’s design was the foundation for building this tug. To assist ships or vessels through challenging regions, it employs a powerful hybrid power system, namely Wärtsilä’s HYTug power system. It combines “Lloyd’s Register class and a 3600-H design of RAL TundRA”.

All the super, as well as substructures of this giant, are very strong and efficient. The superb hull structure is provided, which beats even the class rules of Finnish-Swedish ice. The excellent bollard pull of this tug of about 100 tonnes emphasised its capabilities. It is operated in a diesel manual mode to achieve maximum efficiency.

These can easily break a metre of ice with a comparatively high speed of about three knots. The tug’s thirty-six-metre span is equipped with an excellent propulsion system. Its propulsion system comprises batteries to store energy and run in specific emergencies, shaft motors, generators, two diesel key engines, etc.

The essential features of this tugboat are as follows:

• It is flexible in operation and can switch swiftly.
• It emits less fuel under its hybrid conformations, making its maintenance economical and more accessible.
• There are a variety of operation modes available in this tug due to its innovative and hybrid design.
• It can serve multi-purpose purposes in ice management, assisting ships and enormous barges during voyages, fighting fires, and towing in coastal regions and difficult conditions.

You might also like to read:

• • A Guide To Types of Ships
  • Types of Sailboats: A Comprehensive Classification
  • Different Types of Submarines and Underwater Vessels
  • Different Types of Barges Used in the Shipping World
  • LNG Tankers: Different Types And Dangers Involved

Disclaimer: The author’s views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendations on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared or used in any form without the permission of the author and Marine Insight.

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In every naval fleet worldwide, regardless of its size and firepower, each warship assumes specific roles on the battlefront. Frigates and corvettes, smaller yet significant battleships, are commonly deployed by navies globally, underscoring the intricate balance of specialised vessels within maritime forces.

Their unique design features and assigned roles set them apart on the battlefront, each carrying out diverse functions within their capacity. As integral components of modern naval fleets, these warships play crucial roles in ensuring maritime security, projecting power, and safeguarding strategic interests. Appreciating the importance of these vessels, both in their similarities and differences, is essential for grasping the nuanced strategies employed by naval forces.

Origin and history

The term frigate has a varied history, initially associated with 16th-century Spanish galleys, 17th-century Dunkirk privateers, and Dutch Navy warships with fewer than 40 guns. It wasn’t until the Seven Years’ War that it became linked to a smaller class of vessels with significant firepower.

In the course of World War II, Great Britain designated small escort ships as frigates to protect convoys from submarine threats. In contrast, it took three decades for the U.S. Navy to adopt the term frigate for a larger escort ship than a destroyer, only to align its usage with most other navies later in 1975. Presently, frigate serves as the universal term for smaller warships across all navies, encompassing capabilities such as antisubmarine, anti-aircraft, aircraft-direction, or general-purpose roles.

During the Age of Sail, corvettes were one of many types of warships with a single deck of guns and were very closely related to sloops of war. The French Navy first introduced the term in the 1670s, and over subsequent decades, corvettes grew in size to become vessels that could house twenty guns.

In the early years of the U.S. Navy, corvettes were referred to as ship sloops, while the British Navy adopted the term in the 1830s to describe a slightly larger small sixth-rate vessel than a sloop. As steam power took precedence in the mid-19th century, corvettes faded from the forefront of battle, with some being repurposed to support gunboats during colonial missions. However, during World War II, corvettes experienced a resurgence as small antisubmarine vessels escorting convoys in the Atlantic, eventually evolving into modern surface warships.

Design features

While the classic sailing frigates, renowned for their roles in the Napoleonic Wars, were characterised by square rigging, modern frigates have evolved to become larger in size and incorporate sophisticated design features.

A notable example is the German Navy’s Baden-Württemberg-class frigate, which currently holds the title of the world’s largest frigate. This formidable vessel boasts a stealthy design for both hull and superstructure, measuring an overall length of 149.6m, a beam of 18.8m, and a displacement of 7,200t. Another prominent contender in the realm of powerful frigates is the Russian Navy’s Admiral Gorshkov-class. With an overall length of 130m, a beam of 16m, and a draft of 16m, these frigates exhibit substantial size and capability. Operating with an impressive range of more than 4,000 miles and a displacement of 4,500t, they make a formidable presence on the open waters.

Corvettes, a naval class positioned below frigates, represent a sizeable category that surpasses patrol boats in dimensions. Engineered with aerodynamic hull designs for enhanced speed, contemporary corvettes typically displace between 500 and 2000 tons. Among the latest additions to this class, the Köln, slated for commissioning in 2025, is the sixth ship of the Braunschweig-class corvette in the German Navy. Boasting dimensions of 89.12 meters in length, 3.28 meters in beam, and a draft of 3.4 meters, the Köln exhibits a displacement of 1,840 tonnes.

Role as a warship

Originally, Frigates served as scouts for the fleet, engaging in commerce-raiding missions, patrols, and the conveyance of messages and dignitaries. However, the evolution of these warships has led to a transformation in their roles. Modern Frigates now undertake patrol missions, safeguarding not only other fleet vessels but also merchant marine ships and amphibious expeditionary forces.

The advent of Guided Missile Frigates and Antisubmarine Warfare Frigates has heightened the significance of these warships on the battlefield. Modern frigates now play a more expansive role, actively engaging in various tasks, notably participating in antisubmarine warfare (ASW) operations.

Corvettes play a pivotal role in contemporary naval engagements, showcasing their versatility and high effectiveness, particularly in Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) missions. Beyond their essential role as preparatory vessels in critical wartime scenarios, corvettes excel in a myriad of tasks.

They contribute significantly to escort missions, ensuring the protection of vital assets, engaging in coastal patrolling to secure littoral regions, and actively participating in humanitarian assistance and disaster relief efforts. Corvettes also prove their worth in minor conflicts, demonstrating agility and adaptability, and they are instrumental in “show-the-flag” missions, projecting naval presence and diplomacy in strategic regions.

Weaponry

Given their increasing significance on the battlefield, frigates assert their dominance through a varied arsenal tailored to their specific roles. This weaponry encompasses advanced defence systems featuring anti-ship and anti-aircraft missiles, naval guns, and torpedoes. Some frigates are additionally equipped with Close-In Weapon Systems (CIWS), antisubmarine warfare (ASW) capabilities, and Electronic Warfare (E.W.) Systems, enhancing their adaptability and survivability in modern battlefields.

For instance, the Spartaco Schergat, the newest FREMM multipurpose frigate under construction for the Italian Navy, showcases an impressive array of weaponry, including cutting-edge ASW features such as the Thales 4110CL bow-mounted sonar and the Thales 4249 (CAPTAS 4) suite for submarine detection, along with an advanced Integrated Electronic Warfare Suite (IEWS).

Based on their designated roles, modern Corvettes are armed with advanced naval weaponry, encompassing medium- and small-calibre guns, antisubmarine armaments, and both surface-to-surface and surface-to-air missiles.

Furthermore, certain vessels have the capability to house a small or medium antisubmarine warfare helicopter. For instance, the French Navy’s Gowind Class Corvette boasts a weaponry suite including anti-ship missiles, water cannons, ship self-defence systems, 12.7mm machine guns, a 20mm machine gun, a 76mm naval gun, and an electronic warfare suite.

Electronic Warfare and Sensors

Frigates contribute significantly to the fleet’s battlefield capabilities by incorporating advanced technological attributes. These modern vessels include sophisticated sensor systems such as radars, cutting-edge communication systems, integrated command and control systems, and advanced navigation systems. An example of this technological advancement is evident in the upcoming Constellation-class multi-mission guided-missile frigate of the U.S. Navy.

This vessel is set to feature several state-of-the-art components, including a baseline 10 Aegis combat management system, Raytheon’s AN/SPY-6(V)3 radar, and an Enterprise Air Surveillance Radar (EASR). Additionally, the frigates will be equipped with a lightweight towed array sonar, an antisubmarine warfare combat system, and a variable-depth sonar (VDS), among others.

Electronic warfare and sensors are pivotal elements in the operational framework of corvettes, augmenting their situational awareness, self-defence capabilities, and overall mission effectiveness.

This sophisticated technological integration encompasses an advanced communication system, precise GPS and inertial navigation systems, decoy systems, state-of-the-art radars and sensors, and electronic counter and support measures.

The upcoming fifth Navantia Avante 2200 corvette of Royal Saudi Naval Forces, slated for delivery in 2024, showcases an armament suite featuring the Leonardo Super Rapid 76mm machine gun system, four 12.7mm machine guns, a 30mm machine gun, surface-to-air and surface-to-surface missiles, torpedoes, and decoy launchers.

Stealth features

The incorporation of stealth technology ensures a minimal radar cross-section, enhancing survivability and mission success for naval vessels. Frigates assigned roles encompassing antisubmarine warfare, anti-air warfare, maritime patrol, surveillance, and escort missions benefit from advanced stealth technology.

Their capabilities are enhanced through the incorporation of sophisticated features, including the reduction of radar cross-section, management of emissions and signatures, minimisation of infrared and thermal signatures, and the reduction of acoustic signatures. These attributes collectively contribute to the frigates’ effectiveness and survivability in contemporary naval warfare scenarios.

In addition to their advanced weaponry, corvettes are equipped with cutting-edge stealth features, a crucial element ensuring operational effectiveness in contested maritime environments.

A prime illustration of this capability is found in the Russian Navy’s Steregushchy Class corvettes, where a meticulously crafted stealth design is employed to minimise radar, acoustic, infrared, and magnetic signatures. This strategic integration of stealth technology significantly diminishes the vessel’s radar signature while concurrently reducing acoustic, infrared, magnetic, and visual signatures, exemplifying the comprehensive approach to stealth in the construction of these warships.

Speed and manoeuvrability

Having showcased their ability to cruise at 20 knots during World War II, frigates have come a long way and achieved greater capabilities in modern times. Powered by advanced propulsion systems, modern frigates can attain higher speeds and manoeuvrability, contingent on the vessel’s type and purpose.

The Indian Navy’s Shivalik-class multi-role stealth frigates are capable of reaching a maximum speed of 32 knots. The trio of operational Shivalik class frigates attains this speed through the combined power of two Pielstick 16 PA6 STC Diesel engines and two GE LM2500+ boost turbines, generating a total of 47,370 hp (35,320 kW).

Characterised by their smaller size and agile design, corvettes are generally more manoeuvrable than frigates, although their speed is subject to various factors. A notable example of high-speed corvettes is the Royal Norwegian Navy’s Skjold class. These naval corvettes, measuring 47.5 meters in length, are propelled by four gas turbines, enabling them to achieve speeds of up to 60 knots in calm seas. The Skjold class stands out as one of the fastest vessels in its category, showcasing the agility and swiftness associated with modern corvette designs.

Crew and operation

The crew size needed to operate a frigate or corvette can vary depending on the specific class, design, intended mission, and capabilities of the vessel. Factors influencing the crew size of a frigate include the complexity of its systems, the diversity of missions it can undertake, and the extent of automation integrated into its design.

Modern frigates, in contrast to their traditional counterparts, often feature increased automation, resulting in a reduced crew requirement. In typical situations, the crew for a modern frigate may range from approximately 120 to 200 personnel, facilitating effective operation on the battlefront.

Similar to frigates, the crew size necessary for operating a corvette varies depending on its design and specific operational requirements. The Adhafer-class corvette, currently one of the largest in operation within the Algerian Navy at 120 meters in length, typically demands a crew of 120 personnel for its operation. Constructed by the China State Shipbuilding Corporation, this impressive vessel boasts a width of 14.4 meters, a draft of 3.87 meters, and a fully loaded displacement of around 2,880 tons.

Cost and maintenance

Positioned above corvettes in terms of size, technology, and role, frigates demand higher investments for both construction and maintenance. The Sachsen-class frigates of the German Navy, with the last vessel commissioned in 2006, are regarded as among the most expensive in their category, with a total cost of U.S. $2.37 billion for three vessels. At the same, the recently commissioned first Mogami-class frigate by the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) is projected to have incurred an estimated cost of JPY50 billion ($452.7 million).

Similarly, corvettes also necessitate substantial investments due to their intricate design, advanced technology, and weaponry features, generally costing less than frigates. An illustrative example is the INS Kavaratti, an antisubmarine warfare corvette commissioned by the Indian Navy in 2020. This vessel is one of four Kamorta-class corvettes constructed under Project 28 (Kamorta class), incurring a total cost of $263 million.

Fleet Size

Naval powers around the globe have consistently included frigates in their arsenals to safeguard the safety and security of their borders. The most recent Global Firepower Index reveals that China leads in frigate fleet size with an impressive count of 43 vessels, closely followed by its neighbour Taiwan, which maintains a fleet of 22 frigates.

Securing the third and fourth positions are South Korea and Turkey, boasting 18 and 16 frigates, respectively, in the rankings. It’s important to note that this list excludes vessels currently under construction, such as the U.S. Navy’s Constellation-class multi-mission guided-missile frigate.

On the other hand, corvettes are not universally considered an integral component of naval fleets worldwide. Nevertheless, there is a notable presence of corvettes globally. According to the Global Firepower Index, Russia stands at the forefront with the possession of 86 corvettes in its surface fleet.

Following closely are the navies of China and the United States, with 72 and 22 corvettes, respectively, securing the second and third positions. Indonesia and India occupy the fourth and fifth positions, showcasing 21 and 19 corvettes, respectively.

You might also like to read-

• INS Satpura: The Indigenous Shivalik Class Stealth Frigate of Indian Navy
• What are Corvettes Naval Vessels?
• What are Stealth Ships?
• 10 Largest Hospital Ships In The World
• Top 10 Biggest LPG Carriers in The World

Disclaimer: The authors’ views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendations on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared, or used in any form without the permission of the author and Marine Insight.

Frigates vs Corvettes: What are the Differences? appeared first on Marine Insight - The Maritime Industry Guide

Warships constitute a crucial part of surface fleets worldwide, showcasing diverse sizes and capabilities that align with their specific roles and functions. The expansive oceans act as a stage where naval forces globally unveil strategic designs and technological innovations that make their warships distinct. 

Cruisers and destroyers emerged as prevalent vessels employed by numerous navies within the array of warship types.

Cruisers, characterised by their substantial size, are constructed for high-speed and extended cruising ranges. In contrast, destroyers, renowned for their swiftness and manoeuvrability, are designed to escort larger vessels within fleets or convoys. 

Historically, these two classes of warships held distinct roles within naval fleets. However, the maritime landscape has undergone a profound transformation fueled by technological advancements, ushering in a new era of naval warfare. The infusion of advanced automation, cutting-edge weaponry, and state-of-the-art sensor suites has redefined the traditional traits of cruisers and destroyers and blurred the once clearly defined lines between them. 

At the same time, a diverse array of types has emerged under the umbrella of cruisers, each tailored to meet specific strategic objectives. From heavily armed guided-missile cruisers to versatile air defense cruisers, this category has adapted to the evolving demands of contemporary naval operations. 

Simultaneously, destroyers have evolved from their original role as torpedo boat destroyers into multifaceted platforms armed with advanced weaponry, boasting unparalleled agility and speed.

Despite the convergence in technological features, these two warship types differ significantly in terms of their roles and functions. To comprehend the full extent of their contributions on the battlefront, let’s delve into the key distinctions between cruisers and destroyers.

1. Origin and Evolution

In contemporary naval operations, both cruisers and destroyers stand as formidable warships, each with a unique historical trajectory and distinct roles in warfare. While the term “cruiser” finds its roots in the age of sail, the history of cruisers began with Britain’s introduction of unarmored ships in the mid-19th century to protect commerce. 

By the 1870s, armoured cruisers, belted cruisers, second-class cruisers, and light cruisers entered the scene. The Imperial Russian Navy’s General-Admiral, completed in 1874, is regarded as the first true armoured cruiser. 

Conversely, destroyers, conceived as “torpedo boat destroyers” in 1885, evolved to protect battleships from torpedo threats and transformed into super torpedo boats during World War I, serving as crucial scouts for enemy fleets. Launched in 1893, the HMS Havock of the British Royal Navy is recognised as the first ship explicitly designated as a destroyer.

2. Role and responsibilities

Cruisers and destroyers showcase significant differences in their roles within naval operations. Cruisers, designed for long-range and independent missions, often function as command ships defending fleets.

Their agility and extended operational range make them ideal for covering vast areas and collecting vital intelligence on enemy movements. In addition to their scouting duties, their diverse tasks encompass naval gunfire support, air defence, escorting aircraft carriers, and troop transport. 

On the other hand, destroyers specialise in protecting the fleet from short-range attackers, focusing on antisubmarine warfare, anti-aircraft defence, and escort missions. Beyond combat roles, some destroyers are equipped for command-and-control functions, coordinating fleet movements, and even participating in search and rescue operations.

3. Size and Design

A notable distinction between cruisers and destroyers lies in their size. Cruisers, typically larger and often the largest ships in the fleet, feature a modern length of about 180 meters and a displacement of 7,000 to 10,000 tons. 

The 1992 Washington Treaty imposed a limit of 10,000 tons on cruisers, which many violated, leading to its abandonment shortly before World War II. The Kirov class nuclear-powered guided-missile battlecruisers of the Soviet Navy and Russian Navy are the largest cruisers that are currently in operation. 

The Kirov-class battlecruiser boasts an impressive size with a full load displacement of approximately 28,000 tons, a length of around 252 meters, and a beam of about 28.5 meters. 

In comparison, destroyers are often designed with greater manoeuvrability, commonly having dimensions such as a length of 190 meters and a full load weight of approximately 8,000 tons. 

The title of the largest and most technologically advanced surface combatant worldwide currently belongs to the USS Zumwalt, a guided missile destroyer in the United States Navy. Launched in October 2013, the USS Zumwalt showcases considerable dimensions, featuring a displacement of around 15,000 tons, a length of approximately 183.9 meters, and a width of about 24.6 meters.

4. Armament

While both cruisers and destroyers are designed to provide firepower on the battlefront, they exhibit different capabilities in terms of firepower and armour. Cruisers are typically more heavily armed, equipped with larger caliber main guns, missile launchers, anti-aircraft guns, and anti-ship guns. 

Modern destroyers boast armaments such as surface-to-air missiles, antisubmarine torpedoes, anti-ship missiles, and main guns of about 100 or 130 mm in calibre. Some destroyers also carry submarine-hunting helicopters and cruise missiles. 

The USS Zumwalt, the most technologically advanced surface warship in the US Navy, features 80 vertical launch cells for missiles with the capability to target both land and sea objectives, including antisubmarine rockets. 

5. Independence

Cruisers, designed for open-sea operations and equipped with substantial firepower, have the capability to operate independently. 

Traditionally, cruisers, dating back to the 17th century, were known as independent warships involved in scouting, commerce protection, or raiding. Even modern cruisers maintain this independence. In contrast, destroyers are designed to operate in conjunction with other vessels, escorting larger fleets or convoy ships to defend against a range of threats.

Destroyers are intricately crafted for collaborative naval operations, functioning in tandem with other vessels. 

Their primary role involves escorting larger fleets or convoy ships and orchestrating a protective shield against a broad spectrum of threats. This collaborative approach ensures a comprehensive defence strategy, leveraging the versatility and firepower of destroyers in conjunction with the capabilities of the overall fleet.

6. Speed and maneuverability 

Originally constrained in speed by their size, cruisers have undergone significant evolution. In the present era, modern guided missile cruisers can attain top speeds exceeding 30 knots. In addition to their impressive speeds, cruisers are renowned for their exceptional manoeuvrability, allowing them to navigate swiftly and responsively in various maritime conditions.

 In contrast, destroyers, benefiting from their compact size, have consistently demonstrated higher cruising speeds, often reaching a maximum of 35 knots. An exceptional example is the French Navy’s Le Terrible, a large destroyer of the Le Fantasque class, which notably holds the record for the fastest destroyer, achieving an impressive speed of 45.25 knots.

7. Crew Members

Cruisers, distinguished by their substantial size, demand a larger complement of crew members to effectively manage a myriad of intricate systems and weaponry while deployed in foreign waters. 

For example, the US Navy’s Baltimore-class cruisers houses an extensive crew of 80 officers and 1500 crewmen during wartime operations. Nevertheless, the landscape of naval operations has undergone a transformative shift due to remarkable strides in automation technology. This has yielded a noteworthy change in crew requirements for contemporary cruisers. 

In contrast to their historical counterparts, modern destroyers exemplify this evolution, typically accommodating crews of approximately 300 personnel. A prime illustration of this is observed in the US Navy’s state-of-the-art Arleigh Burke-class destroyers, which boast an impressive crew size of about 300 sailors. This reduction in crew numbers, facilitated by the integration of cutting-edge automation, underscores the evolution of naval vessels towards more streamlined and technologically sophisticated operational frameworks.

8. Endurance at Sea

Crafted with a focus on extended operational endurance, cruisers are purpose-built vessels designed to sustain prolonged periods at sea, rendering them well-suited for extended-range patrols and missions. 

Their inherent design incorporates a robust capacity to stock essential provisions, including but not limited to food, fuel, and various supplies, enabling sustained operations over extended durations while deployed at sea. In sharp contrast, destroyers, characterised by their smaller size, exhibit a more limited endurance profile. The constrained physical dimensions of destroyers inherently result in reduced storage capacity, necessitating more frequent resupply and refuelling.

9. Cost and Maintenance

In the realm of naval vessels, cruisers typically take the spotlight as larger and more intricate vessels when compared to their destroyer counterparts. This inherent complexity often translates into higher costs associated with both construction and maintenance. The financial outlay for cruisers is intricately tied to various factors, including the sophistication of weapon systems, the comprehensiveness of radar and sensor suites, and the overall design specifications. 

An illustrative case of this financial commitment comes to light with the People’s Liberation Army Navy’s (PLAN) ongoing construction of the Type 055 Renhai-class guided-missile cruisers. Boasting dimensions of 591 feet in length, a 66-foot beam, and a 22-foot draft, these cruisers reportedly come with a price tag of at least $900 million each.

Conversely, destroyers, characterised by their smaller size and more targeted mission objectives, often present a more cost-effective alternative. Nonetheless, it’s crucial to note that even within the realm of destroyers, costs can escalate, particularly when integrating advanced technology and weapon systems. 

A case in point is the United States Navy’s cutting-edge Zumwalt-class guided missile destroyers, where the combined expenditure for three of these vessels, encompassing research and development, reportedly amounted to around $22.4 billion. 

10. Fleet strength

 When it comes to cruiser fleet strength, the United States continues to assert its dominance as the world’s foremost operator, with China now occupying the second spot. 

Recent data from the International Institute for Strategic Studies indicates that the US Navy currently commands a fleet of 19 operational cruisers, a significant lead over China’s People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN), which operates seven cruisers. Japan follows with three cruisers in its possession. In terms of destroyer capability, the United States Navy once again emerges as the global frontrunner. 

According to the latest rankings from GlobalFirepower.com, the US Navy boasts the largest destroyer fleet, commanding a formidable 92 vessels. China secures the second position with 50 destroyers, followed by Japan, which operates 36 destroyers.

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Disclaimer: The authors’ views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used in the article, have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendations on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared or used in any form without the permission of the author and Marine Insight.

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What is a hospital ship?

A hospital ship is designed to be a floating hospital on the ocean or seas to offer medical treatment spanning from minor to major surgeries, prescribing medication, etc.

One may wonder when they were even invented and why. However, they are not a modern phenomenon, as they have existed since ancient times.

The navy of Athens had a ship called Therapia, and even the Roman Navy had a similar ship called Aesculapius. Their names and descriptions indicate they were hospital ships, providing comfort to the wounded and sick.

What is the need for Hospital Ships in the world?

Today, most hospital ships are operated by a country’s navy and used during peacetime and even during war, global emergencies, natural disasters, etc.

In developing nations, there is a shortage of medical providers, medical tools, and medicines needed for surgery and infrastructure. Secondly, some poor communities live in far-flung regions away from hospitals on the land and near the coast or shores. They lack access to basic medical care and attention and suffer since they lack money to get treatment.

In all these scenarios, hospital ships come to their rescue as they visit such people and give them timely treatment, almost free of cost.

Use of Hospital Ships during the World War Period

In the 19th century, old and obsolete warships were used as hospital ships to treat the soldiers. Hospital ships were used on a huge scale during the World War Period when several passenger liners, such as RMS Aquitania and HMHS Britannic, were converted to be used as floating hospitals.

The hospital ships look different from other ships as they are painted in white and carry a white flag with a red cross. Even their interiors, utensils and furniture are designed to give the feel that one is in a hospital on land.

The 2nd Geneva Convention prohibits any military attacks on these vessels; however, during World Wars, even hospital ships were targeted. For instance, Canada’s SS Letitia (i) and HMHS Llandovery Castle were sunk by a German boat, resulting in several deaths despite the status of the ships.

Let us explore the 10 largest hospital ships in this article.

1. MV Global Mercy

The world’s biggest civilian hospital ship, MV Global Mercy, was built as a floating medical centre for Mercy Ships. This humanitarian organisation operates the largest non-governmental hospital ships in the world.

It was constructed by CSSC at Tianjin Xingang Shipyard in Tianjin, China, and completed in 2021. The following year, she sailed to Rotterdam for a 2-week stopover, where it was revealed to the world for the first time. It made its maiden voyage soon after to Africa, where it was joined by another hospital ship called Africa Mercy. Global Mercy then began functioning as a floating training facility in Dakar, Senegal.

Coming to its specifications, it is 174 m long and weighs 37,000 tonnes with 12 decks. The hospital is on decks 3 and 4 and has supply services, 6 operating theatres, 102 beds, 7 ICU beds and 90 sef-care beds.

It also has classrooms and simulator rooms to train medical professionals. There are meeting rooms, working spaces and accommodation for 612 people. There is a K-12 academy for children of the volunteers serving on the ship.

2. MV Africa Mercy

Africa Mercy is the second largest hospital ship in the Mercy Ships’ fleet and the world. It is 152 m long and 23.7 m wide with a 6 m draught. It was converted from a rail ferry called MS Droning Ingrid in 2007.

It has 8 decks, the lower ones of which are a hospital with 5 operating theatres, an ICU, a CT Scanner, labs, a recovery area for around 82 patients, and an ophthalmology unit.
The upper decks have living spaces for 484 crew. There are 126 cabins, a school for all age groups, a library, a laundry area, a restaurant, supermarkets, gyms, shops and even a Starbucks Cafe.

The vessel provides surgical care onboard and even undertakes land-based operations and mental health campaigns for the terminally ill. It has 28 vehicles that travel with the ship for its shore-based activities.

The operating rooms have everything required for specific surgeries required by people of a country that this ship visits.

Since it visits the poorest countries, ailments like hernias, tumours, burns, cataracts, childbirth injuries, etc, can become serious, and the people suffering from them are shunned from their communities. Hence, the doctors onboard treat them and gift them their normal lives back.

3. USNS Mercy

USNS Mercy is the lead ship of her class and is in non-commissioned service with the U.S Navy. There are no offensive weapons onboard this hospital ship, but it carries defensive ones.

National Steel and Shipbuilding Company in San Diego, California, built it as a San Clemente-Class Oil Tanker called SS Worth in 1976. However, her name was changed in 1984 when she was made into a hospital ship and launched the next year.

USNS Mercy strives to offer medical and surgical operations to support Marine Corps Air and Ground Task Forces, the naval amphibious task forces, Army and Air Force units, and battle forces.

She can also give surgical services to government agencies in times of disaster and offer humanitarian relief and function during peacetime military operations.

The ship has 1000 patient beds and is homeported in San Diego. It has many departments, such as radiology, physical therapy and burn care, dental unit, optometry, angiography, blood bank, morgue, labs and 2 oxygen-producing plants.

4. Esperanza Del Mar

A medical or hospital ship constructed by the Gijon Yard of the Izar Group in 2001, Esperanza Del Mar belonged to Spain. It was built to function in unpleasant weather conditions to offer medical assistance when required.

It has comfortable accommodation space for 41 crew members and can easily handle 17 patients and 30 people who face accidents while at sea.

The ship can engage in salvage operations and assist other ships in distress. It also has a scientific research container shipping ability and can also accommodate logistics support cargo in case of natural disasters in its hold. It has a helideck and a helicopter refuelling facility. The ship has special design features like manoeuvrability and low levels of noise.

5. Daishan Dao

The lead ship and the only ship in her class, this Type 920 hospital ship belongs to the Chinese Navy. It was built by Guangzhou Shipyard International Company Limited and launched in 2007 to give China a means to offer better and quicker humanitarian assistance in terms of global emergencies. Some argue that it allows China to expand its Blue Water capabilities.

It was commissioned in 2008, and two years later, it embarked on a historic mission to the Gulf of Aden with 428 officers and 100 medical professionals. She visited Djibouti, Kenya, Bangladesh, Seychelles, Tanzania and Kenya and offered medical treatment to the locals.

The ship, also called Peace Ark, went to Djibouti, Gabon, Sierra Leone, Congo, Mozambique, Angola and Tanzania and treated thousands of people.

The ship has 300 beds, 8 operation theatres, and 20 ICU beds, enabling doctors to perform about 40 surgeries daily. Traditional Chinese medicine is also available onboard this ship. She is equipped with a remote communications and networking system that allows teleconferencing with specialists and doctors onboard the ship.

6. Irtysh

This Ob-class hospital ship of the Russian Navy was constructed to offer medical care. Part of the Pacific Fleet, it has a civilian crew but can carry uniformed naval medical personnel.

Its goal is to receive, distribute, and offer medical help to the injured, sick and wounded in times of peace or even during hostile situations. It also undertakes evacuation missions from other ships.

The Irtysh was ordered in 1981 and was constructed by Adolf Barsky, Szczecin. She was launched in 1989 and commissioned in 1990.

The 145.7 m ship with a 6.2 m draft is equipped with all medical and surgical equipment. She was modernised in 2016 and again in 2017 to add telemedicine equipment.

The ship can carry 300-450 patients and 207 crew members. She can sail at a speed of 19 knots, and her homeport is Vladivostok.

7. M/V Pacific Hope

Pacific Hope is a medical relief ship that has a dental clinic and a general medical facility and can accommodate around 60 people. It was constructed in 1983, is 54.1 m long, and has a 20,0000 nautical mile range.

It was earlier operated by Marine Reach New Zealand and has completed its outreaches in Vanuatu and Fiji, after which it headed to the Caribbean in 2018 to help with hurricane relief.

Under the ambit of Marine Reach Global, this ship continues to make its impact in taking medical help to the needy across the globe and restoring hope to the poor communities that need it the most.

Marine Reach Global is a non-governmental organisation that aims to show the love of Christ and promote his Gospel through medical help, educational outreach, youth development, training programs, repairs, construction building, distribution of supplies and the Bible. It oversees the operations and hopes to achieve its mission through the work of the ships MV Pacific Hope and the YWAM Barbados.

8. KRI dr. Radjiman Wedyodiningrat (992)

The 2nd ship of the Indonesian Navy’s Sudirohusodo-class hospital ships is named after a respected national figure, Rajiman Wediodiningrat, a physician and a founding figure of Indonesia.

Its construction began on 10th September 2020, and its keel was laid a year later on 21st January 2021. She was christened and launched on August 15, 2022. Finally, the ship was commissioned in January 2023.

The ship is preparing for a possible deployment to aid the people of Palestine after the 2023 Israel-Hamas conflict and the bombing of Gaza by Israel.

KRI dr Radjiman Wedyodiningrat (992) has a radiology, surgical, and postoperative room. It also has an isolation area and treatment rooms for 46 people. There is also a baby room, an emergency room, a lab and a morgue.

The ship is 124 m long and weighs 7300 tonnes. It has a speed of over 18 knots and can accommodate 163 crew members, 18 heli pilots, 66 medical staff, 158 patients and 280 volunteers. It has three onboard helicopters and two ambulance boats.

9. Papa Francisco

This ship was made to provide medical assistance to over 1000 indigenous communities living along the river in the northern part of Brazil’s Amazon region. It is named after Pope Francis and was constructed by the Industria Naval do Ceara shipyard.

This hospital ship was constructed with the financial support of Para’s government. It is 32 m long and has a 6 m beam with a speed of 7 knots. It has dental rooms, an operating theatre, a vaccination room, an ophthalmologic room, a treatment room and an infirmary with patient beds.

It can accommodate 30 people and also has a galley, a mess area, a library and a laundry area. There are 20 crew members and 20 medical staff who serve on the vessel as volunteers. The ship undertakes a 7 to 10-day voyage in which it visits as many riverside communities as it can before coming back to its homeport of Obidos on the Amazon River.

It was delivered in 2019 and since then has operated along the Amazon River, except for brief pauses during the Covid-19 in Brazil in 2020. Apart from providing medical care to riverside communities, it also delivers humanitarian aid, food and hygiene kits to coastal communities with barely any access to the basic necessities.

10. Khanh Hoa 01

Also referred to as HQ-561, this hospital ship is said to be one of the most modern and advanced ships of its kind in the Southeast Asia. It is operated by healthcare professionals and doctors who provide medical care to residents, military personnel and fishermen in the Truong Sa or the Spratly Archipelago.

This ship has an operating theatre and often operates amidst strong winds and waves. Per Senior Lieutenant Ta Trung Thanh, the vessel’s political commissar, all crew members have been trained to perform basic first aid.

The ship has transported medicine and carried out emergency treatments for thousands of military personnel, fishermen and locals in the region since 2012.

Khanh Hoa 01 spends 2 months every 2 years serving DK1 platforms and the Spratly Archipelago. It also takes military personnel and other people to visit or work on the islands and even deliver water and food to those inhabiting the islands.

This ship represented the Navy of Vietnam at the Komodo exercise, which included 18 nations, of which 10 were part of ASEAN. During this naval aid and disaster relief exercise, three surgeries were done onboard the ship apart from examining thousands of Indonesians.

Conclusion

The hospital ships operated by navies of different countries, as well as several non-governmental organisations, are a testament to the commitment of these entities to offering medical care and humanitarian aid to the most needy across the world.

These floating hospitals are marvels of engineering and innovation. They are equipped with the most advanced equipment and need a lot of energy to function daily. Above all, they are the epitome of the dedication and compassion of healthcare workers, many of whom function on these ships voluntarily.

Hospital Ships can come in handy during emergencies, man-made and natural disasters, wars, etc and can even be used to house people for a short time in case such a situation arises.

The fact that there are so many hospital ships in the world which operate round the clock so that medical help reaches the poor and isolated communities across the globe shows the power of collective effort and cooperation.

As these floating hospitals sail the seas and oceans, they leave a legacy that spans beyond their decks. They are holders of countless memories and remain symbols of care and resilience in the communities that they serve.

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Disclaimer: The authors’ views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendations on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared, or used in any form without the permission of the author and Marine Insight.

10 Largest Hospital Ships In The World appeared first on Marine Insight - The Maritime Industry Guide

LPG or Liquefied Petroleum Gas is a multipurpose fuel with innumerable applications in the industrial sector, manufacturing, transportation, power generation etc. The demand for LPG has rapidly increased as the world has shifted to the utilisation of cleaner fuels, due to increasing global warming.

This enhanced demand has generated opportunities for the creation of maritime LPG transportation services that are offered by either LPG traders and distributors or by shipping companies owing LPG Carriers.

The main trade route of the LPG shipping industry is from Arabian Gulf to Asia. In recent times, the US has emerged as a major export centre, hence the route from the US to Asia has also become vital.

LPG is carried in carriers of numerous sizes but the Very Large Gas Carriers or VLGCs are the biggest category of vessels in the global LPG fleet. They have an LPG carrying capacity of more than 70,000 cubic m and are specifically designed to be energy-efficient, and meet international environmental norms regarding carbon emissions.

The highly portable nature of LPG makes its maritime transportation a lucrative economic activity with much scope of profit. In this article, let us explore the magnificent features of the world’s biggest LPG Carriers.

1. Bellavista Explorer

The world’s largest LPG Carrier Bellavista Explorer was launched in 2021 by Hyundai Samho Heavy Industries, a company owned by South Korea’s Hyundai Shipbuilding Group. It incorporates a fuel tank that allows the carrier to sail up to 31,700 kilometres and has a storage capacity of 90,000 cubic m.

Equipped with an efficient dual-fuel propulsion technology that can utilise both LPG and diesel, it is an environment-friendly LPG-Carrier that produces 80% fewer sulphur emissions, 50% lower nitrogen emissions and reduces greenhouse gas emissions by 25%.

It is sailing under the flagship of Singapore and has a double-bottomed hull which reduces the probability of oil outflows in case of an accident or grounding.

The vessel measures 229.98 m lengthwise and 36.6 m breadthwise and its height is 23.6 m approximately. Its gross tonnage is 52868 tonnes and its deadweight is 58045.

The ship can accommodate 171671 cubic m of Liquid Gas. The draught of this LPG Carrier is recorded to be 12 m and can attain a maximum speed of 18 knots with an average speed of about 14.6 knots.

2. Flanders Innovation

The Flanders Innovation is one of the biggest LPG dual-fuel carriers in the world. It was built in 2021 in the Jiangnan Shipyard, China. It is owned by Shimanami Shipping SA and operated by Exmar Shipmanagement NV.

It has a carrying capacity of 88,000 cubic m and is powered by LPG fuel. It is said that the Carrier would cut-down operational emissions by 38% compared to International Maritime Organization’s reference lines for the Very Large Gas Carriers.

It is registered at Antwerp port and is currently sailing under the Belgian flag. It has a double hull and its deadweight is 54,998 MT. Its average draught is estimated to be 10 m. Its length is 230 m and it is 36 m broad. Its average speed is 11.6 knots while it can attain a maximum speed of 19 knots.

3. Gas Venus

Gas Venus, earlier known as Buena Venus, was built in 2006 by Kanrei Shipbuilding Corporation. It is owned and managed by PT. Mammiri Line, a shipping enterprise based in Makassar, Indonesia. Its IMO number is 9375460 and its MMSI number is 525900722. It is registered at Makassar port and presently sailing under the Indonesian flagship. Its call sign is YDAN2.

It has a unique design that comprises an axle-hung shaft generator. It has a low carbon footprint since it is fuelled by LPG. The ship measures 96 m lengthwise, 16 m breadthwise and has a draught of 5.5 m. Its gross tonnage is 2997 m and its deadweight is 3170 tonnes. It can attain a maximum speed of 18 knots. It has a diesel engine with an electric motor and 2 Stroke Single Acting, 6 Cylinders with a power of 2,400 KW, built by Makita Corporation. It has a vertical boiler and 3 generators.

4. BW LPG Ship – BW Lord

World’s leading company, in terms of ownership and operation of VLGC ships, BW LPG Ship fleet comprises multiple ships with a carrying capacity of more than 84,000 cubic m. It owns the world’s biggest fleet of LPG driven VLGCs and 15 of its ships have an LPG dual-fuel propulsion system that promises the lowest carbon emissions.

The biggest ship of the fleet, in terms of its carrying capacity, is BW Lord owned by BW Global United LPG India Private Limited. It was built in 2008 by Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering Corporation, Okpo, South Korea. It is registered at Kochi port and is currently under the flagship of India.

BW Lord has a length of 226 m while its beam measures 36.50 m. The distance from its bow to bridge is about 189 m. Its gross tonnage is 48502 tonnes and its deadweight is 54691 tonnes. It has an average draught of 10.1 m. Its average and maximum sailing speed are 11.2 knots and 19 knots respectively.

It has a 14,280 Kilowatt DOOSAN-MAN B&W main engine, 3 auxiliary engines and a single fixed propeller.

5. Dorian COMET ships – 19 ships 0f 84,000 cu- m

Dorian LPG is a shipping company owning and operating Very Large Gas Carriers. It owns a fleet of 21 VLGCs, out of which 19 ships have a carrying capacity of 84,000 cubic m. All these ships are sailing under the flag of the Bahamas. These ships are fuel-efficient and are designed to be sustainable for the environment. Their average life expectancy is estimated to be 7 years.

Some of the ships from this fleet include- The Caravelle, The Challenger, Copernicus, VLGC Cobra, Continental, Clermont etc.

The ECO VLGC Caravelle, earlier known as Caravelle T 4, was built in 2016 by Hyundai Samho Heavy Industries Corporation, Samho, South Korea. It measures 225 m lengthwise and 36 m breadthwise. Its average draught is 10 m while its average and maximum speeds are 11.5 knots and 18.8 knots. Its gross tonnage is 47379 tonnes while its deadweight is 54566 tonnes. The carrier is powered by a 6G60ME-C MAN-B&W engine with a power of 12400 kW.

6. Pacific gas VLGC fleet – 8 ships with 84,000 cubic m capacity

Pacific Gas is a Gas shipping company registered in Hong Kong. The enterprise owns and operates around 10 ocean-going VLGC ships, out of which 8 are the biggest among the fleet with a carrying capacity of 84,000 cubic m.

The 8 VLGCs are Pacific Shanghai, Hong Kong, Binzhou, Dongying, Yantai, Qingdao, Rizhao and Pacific Weihai. All these LPG ships are currently sailing under the flag of Hong Kong.

Pacific Shanghai was built in 2017. Her call sign is VRPV4 and it is registered at Hong Kong port. It is 226 m long and 37 m broad with an average draught of 10 m. The ship’s average and maximum speeds are recorded to be 12 knots and 18.5 knots. Its Gross Tonnage is 48419 tonnes and its deadweight is about 54747 tonnes.

Another huge LPG Carrier is Pacific Hong Kong with IMO and MMSI numbers of 9778478 and 477035900. It was built in 2017 and measures 226 m lengthwise and 36 m breadthwise. Its gross tonnage is 48419 tonnes while its summer deadweight is 54747 tonnes. It has a MAN-B&W engine with a power of 12420 kW.

7. Solvangship VLGCs- Clipper Posh and Clipper Quito

Solvang ASA is a shipping company engaged in the transportation of LPG and petrochemical gases. Headquartered in Stavanger, Norway, it has a fleet of Ethylene carriers, Large Gas Carriers and the VLGCs. Among the 8 VLGCs, two vessels namely Clipper Posh and Clipper Quito have an LPG carrying capacity of 84,000 cubic m.

Clipper Posh was built in 2013 and is owned by Clipper Shipping AS and operated by Solvang ASA. It is currently sailing under the flag of Norway. Its LOA is 225 m and its breadth is 36.6 m. It has a summer deadweight of 55,047 tonnes while its gross tonnage is 48,051 tonnes. It has a maximum draught of 12.1 m and its average sailing speed is 12 knots while its maximum attainable speed is 20 knots. Its main engine operates at a power of 12,600 kW.

Another huge LPG vessel operated by Solvang ASA is Clipper Quito, built-in 2013.  The vessel is registered at the Stavanger port and is currently sailing under the Norwegian flag. The vessel measures 225 m lengthwise and 37 m breadthwise. It has an average draught of 10 m and an average speed of 11.5 knots. Its maximum speed is around 20 knots.

8. KOTC LPG ship fleet – 3 ships of 82516 m3

Kuwait Oil Tanker Company, a subsidiary of Kuwait Petroleum Corporation involved in the maritime transportation of Crude oil, petroleum products and LPG. It possesses 5 LPG carriers out of which 3 namely, Gas Umm Al Rowaisat, Gas AL Ahmadiah and Gas Al Mubarakiah have a carrying capacity of 82516m3. All these ships are sailing under the flag Of Kuwait.

Gas Umm Al Rowaisat was built in 2020 and her length and width are 228.45 m and 36 m. Its draught is 11.2 m, meanwhile, its gross tonnage and deadweight are reported to be 49394 and 54551 tonnes. The other two ships have the same dimensions as well.

9. Nakilat LPG- Al Wukir

Nakilat is a shipping and maritime-based company based in Qatar. It owns 4 VLGCs out of which Al Wukir is the biggest LPG carrier with a carrying capacity of 82491 m3. It was built in 2008 by Hyundai Heavy Industries and is currently sailing under the flag of the Marshall Islands. Its length is 225.28 m and its breadth is 36.63 m. Its Gross Tonnage is 47058 tonnes and its deadweight is around 54446 tonnes.

10. Petredec’s Manifesto

Petredec Shipping company owns multiple LPG carriers out of which Manifesto is the biggest in terms of its carrying capacity. The vessel was built in 2013 by Hyundai Heavy Industries, South Korea and is currently sailing under the flag of Singapore. It measures 225 m lengthwise and 36 m breadthwise. It has a gross tonnage of 47057 tonnes and a summer deadweight of 54000 tonnes. The vessel has a MAN-B&W Engine with a power of 12400 KW.

Conclusion

Large LPG carriers have eased maritime transportation across countries however this has been possible due to enhancements in shipbuilding technologies, the adoption of new designs to minimise environmental impact and maximise efficiency.

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Disclaimer: The authors’ views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendations on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

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Bulk carriers are maritime vessels designed to carry loose bulk cargo like grains, cereals, coal, ores, iron, steel, cement, etc. Today, bulkers comprise 21 per cent of the global shipping fleet, most registered in Panama. A leading builder of bulk carriers is South Korea, whose shipyards have produced 80 per cent of the Very Large Ore Carriers.

Bulk carrier ships have different specifications and features. Some have their own unloading equipment and even offer packaging services while the cargo is loaded. Nonetheless, they come in different sizes, the smallest being the mini-bulk carriers with a capacity of 10,000 DWT while the VLOC is the largest class of bulk carriers, with a deadweight of over 300,000 tonnes, mostly used for shipping iron.

Below are the exemplary features of the five biggest bulk carriers in the world.

1. MS Ore Brasil

MS Ore Brasil is a Valemax Class ship ordered in 2009 by Vale SA, Brazil’s largest mining company and logistics services provider. Built by Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering, South Korea, Ore Brasil entered service in 2011 and is presently sailing under the flag of Hong Kong while it is registered at the port of Singapore.

Earlier known as Vale Brasil, it took over MS Berge Stahl, a Norwegian ore carrier as the largest bulk carrier in the world, constructed for shipping iron ore from Brazil to European and Asian ports, especially China.

MS Ore Brasil measures 362 metres lengthwise and 65 m breadthwise, while its hull is 30.4 m deep, making it one of the longest marine vessels. Its gross tonnage is 198,990 tonnes, and it consists of 7 cargo compartments, each having a volume equal to a small-sized Panamax ship. Its total gross volume is around 219980 m3, and it is loaded using a ship-loader at the rate of 13,500 tonnes per hour.

Classified by Det Norske Veritas as a Very Large Ore Carrier, its deadweight is 402347 tonnes while its net tonnage is 67,993 tonnes. When fully packed with iron ore, MS Ore Brasil has a draught of 23 metres equivalent to more than 11,100 trucks. Her size restricts her entry at most ports, and only the biggest harbours can accommodate carriers of this size. It has space for 35 crew members and an average cruising speed of 15.4 knots.

Powered by a MAN B&W 7S80ME-C8 two-stroke diesel engine connected with a fixed pitch propellor, it is imbued with a novel carbon-reduction technology which reduces greenhouse gas emissions by thirty-five per cent compared to older ships of this class. It exhibits long-distance efficiency and was presented with the Clean Ship award at the Norwegian Shipping Exhibition held in 2011.

2. MS Berge Stahl

Constructed by Hyundai Heavy Industries in 1986, MS Berge Stahl was the largest iron ore carrier in the world until MS Ore Brasil entered service in 2011, overtaking it in terms of deadweight and gross tonnage. Her port of registry is Douglas, the Isle of Man; however, it was previously registered in Stavanger, Norway and Monrovia in Liberia.

From 1986 till 2008, Berge Stahl was operated by Bergesen Worldwide Gas ASA, the largest gas shipping company in the world. Since 2012, it has been owned and operated by Berge Bulk, a Singapore-based independent dry bulk owner possessing over 80 ships and carriers.

The second biggest bulk carrier, she is 342.8 m long and 63.5 m wide with a draft of 23 m. She has a deadweight of 364,767 tonnes and is driven by a MAN B&W 7L90MCE diesel engine linked to a 9 m propeller, which generates 27,609 horsepower. It has a gross tonnage of 175720 tonnes and a maximum sailing speed of 25 kilometres or 13.5 knots per hour.

Due to her gigantic size, Berge Stahl can enter only two ports when fully loaded. The first is the Terminal Marítimo de Ponta da Madeira, Brazil, from where it carried iron ore to the port of Rotterdam, Netherlands. During high tides, it can enter Europoort and the new bulk terminal in Caofeidian, China. However, the ship can moor at other European ports if it is not fully loaded. In 2014, the carrier underwent repair and maintenance in a drydock in Portugal.

3. Brasil Maru

Developed as a bulk ore carrier by Nippon Kaiji Kyokai, Brasil Maru was constructed in 2007 by Mitsui Engineering and Shipbuilding Co. Ltd in the Chiba shipyard in Ichihara, Japan. A pioneering ship, it reduced iron transportation costs manifold. Her completion was a moment of victory since large-scale carriers of her size had never been built in Japan during that time. Endowed with the latest ultrasonic impact treatment welding technology that effectively tackled metal fatigue, it was given the Ship of the Year Award in 2007.

It was ordered by Nippon Steel Corporation to meet the growing needs of the Japanese steel production industries. With a deadweight of 327,017 tons, it shipped iron ore from Brazil to Japan, strengthening the nation’s manufacturing sector. Presently sailing under the flag of Panama, it is owned by Tamou Lines SA and managed by Doun Kisen, a prominent Japanese Shipping Company.

Brasil Maru is 340 m long and 60 m broad with a draft of 28.15 m. Its gross tonnage is 160774 tonnes, and its iron ore carrying capacity is 327,180. Propelled by an MITSUI-MAN B&W Diesel Engine 7S80MC-C 1 with a power of 23,645 kW at 66rpm, Basil Maru can reach a top speed of 17.5 knots while its average sailing speed is 15.

Registered in Panama, the bulk carrier is designed to provide excellent manoeuvrability and stability. It consumes less fuel compared to other bulk carriers of the same size. Even its main engine and generator engines meet the IMO standards. Its unique hull and propeller offer optimum performance. The ship’s mooring equipment lets it easily dock at Brazilian and Australian ports. It can be accommodated in most harbours when it is not fully loaded.

Endowed with an automated oil supply mechanism and double-hulled fuel tank, the carrier releases twenty per cent fewer carbon emissions than her counterparts.

It can carry 30 crew members and has ample safety and lifesaving equipment onboard. Three lifeboats, each capable of carrying 20 people, and a 10-seater rescue boat are available on the Brasil Maru.

4. Tubarao Maru

Like her sister vessel Brasil Maru, Tubarao Maru was constructed by Mitsui Engineering and Shipbuilding Co Ltd in 2008. Registered and sailing under the flag of Panama, the ore carrier is operated by the renowned Doun Kisen Corporation and owned by G.O.D Shipping SA. She has a gross tonnage of 161294 tonnes, and her deadweight is 326,964 tonnes. With an overall length of 340 metres, a 60 m beam and a summer draught of 21.17m, she can reach a maximum speed of 15 knots while her average cruising speed is 13 knots.

She can easily carry 200,867 tonnes of iron ore and is equipped with three lifeboats, a rescue boat and four liferafts. It has a 1DE: 2 SA 7 CY main engine with a power of 23,640 kW at 66rpm and four generators connected to a single shaft.

5. Stellar Queen

The fifth biggest bulk carrier in the world, Stellar Queen was built in 1994 by NKK Shipbuilding in Yokohama, Japan. Previously known by different names like Ore Yantai, Ore Goro and Hydra Star, the ship is sailing under the Marshall Islands flag while its homeport is Majuro.

It has a carrying capacity of 305,846 DWT and measures 331.5 m lengthwise and 58 m breadthwise. Her top sailing speed is 10 knots and she has an average cruising speed of 8.4 knots. She has a gross tonnage of 162,393 tonnes and a Sulzer type engine.

It is owned by Polaris Shipping based in Seoul, South Korea and managed by MSI Management, Singapore. Apart from Stellar Queen, Polaris Shipping also owns three bulk carriers having the same dimensions as the Stellar Queen. However, they all were built in 2015 and have slightly less carrying capacity.

Stellar Queen was a Very Large Crude Carrier before it was converted into a bulk carrier. In 2017, while the ship was en route to the Brazilian port of Itaqui, two cracks appeared in the main deck area. Similar structural flaws led to the sinking of the Polaris’ VLOC Stellar daisy in 2017 while it was carrying 260,000 tonnes of iron ore from Brazil to China. Only 2 out of the 24 crew members were rescued before the ship went down in the South Atlantic.

As a consequence, the Brazilian mining company Vale decided to amend its contracts with Polaris Shipping due to the technical defects of its old VLOCs, as reported in a 2020 press release.

You might also like to read:

• What are Break Bulk Ships?
• 11 Steps to Enhance Safety of Bulk Carrier Ships
• What are Bulk Carrier Ships?
• Different Types of Bulk Carriers
• What is Collision Bulkhead in Ships?

Disclaimer: The authors’ views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendation on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared or used in any form without the permission of the author and Marine Insight. 

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As we all know, a boat is a type of watercraft that has been specifically designed for navigating near-shore areas or inland waterways such as rivers and lakes.

What makes a boat different from a ship is its smaller size and lesser carrying capacity compared to the latter.

However, the definition of a boat –its size, shape and capacity-varies according to its purpose. To understand better, you might want to read about the major differences between boat and ship.

According to modern naval terms, a boat is defined as a watercraft that is small enough to be carried abroad a ship (some boats are measured up to 1000 feet in length).

Similarly, many boats are intended to provide service, not in near-shore areas but in the offshore environment.

Interestingly, contradicting the “ships can carry boats, but boats can’t carry ships” argument, even sometimes the US Navy submarines are called boats.

Historical evidence suggests that the boat has been used for transportation since pre-historic times. However, from the oldest known boat named dugouts, the evolution of the watercraft has now reached luxurious motor yachts.

Apart from recreational purposes, boats have also served an integral purpose in the modern commercial world by allowing active transportation of both passengers and cargo, wherever short distances are concerned.

Types of Boats

Technically, there are several different types of boats, and it’s impossible to list down all the types. But, primarily, boats can be classified into three main sections as follows:

• Unpowered or man-powered boats (like rafts, gondolas, kayaks, etc.),
• Sailboats (sail-propelled)
• Motorboats (engine-powered)

Here we have a list of the major types of boats in the above-mentioned categories of vessels, along with boat pictures used around the world.

Related Read: 5 Biggest and Magnificent Sailing Ships of All Time

1. Fishing Boats

Built exclusively for fishing, fishing boats in different sizes are used on both salt and freshwater bodies. The immediate qualities of these boats include stability, strength, and durability to survive the fishing ventures across various kinds of waterways.

Fishing boats can be both manned and un-manned types. The all-purpose fishing boats generally include a front bow, rod lockers, a trolling motor system, an outboard power and live wells.

Compared to the boats meant for lakes and rivers, the boats fishing in the offshore environment will be taller in size and strong-built to withstand saltwater and harsher conditions.

On the other hand, the aluminium fishing boats weigh less and are highly durable.  The bass boats designed with slim profiles, and consist of 2-3 anglers on board, are type of a boat used for fishing.

Related Read: Types of Fishing Vessels

2. Dinghy Boats

A dinghy can be a small inflatable boat usually made of rubber and comprises cross thwarts and rowlocks that act as seats and oars, respectively.

Commonly powered by sails, oars and small outboard engines, Dinghies are popularly known as sailboats, rowboats or simply inflatables.

These boats team up with more significant vessels and come in handy when the mothership cannot navigate in narrow areas. These rowboats can also be utilised as companion boats and are taken to camping expeditions or fishing in shallow waters.

Related Read: Differences Between a Ship and a Boat

3. Deck Boats

As the name suggests, Deck Boats come with an open deck area that provides plenty of seating arrangements for a small group of people.

The boat features a V-shaped hull with a wide beam to accommodate more passengers than a pontoon boat. Usually measures 25-35 ft in length, they are provided with a stern power drive and are popularly used for recreational activities like swimming, water sports etc.

4. Bowrider Boats

Known as a quintessential family boat, Bowriders offer room for eight or more passengers across its cockpit, bow cockpit and helm. In addition, the bow area of these boats has been constructed in a unique way to allow a spacious seating arrangement.

Moreover, these runabout-style vessels contain a swim platform for putting on wakeboards or for swimming activities feel-good leisure boating.

With its classic V-shaped bottom, Bowrider Boats offer a splendid ride across different water conditions. The usage of sterndrive power is the typical rule, but the demand for outboard engines is increasing rapidly.

4. Catamaran Boats

Unlike other boats, Catamaran is a multi-hulled watercraft that features two parallel hulls of equal size. Catamaran Boats feature less hull volume, shallower draft, and higher displacement than vessels with a single hull.

Excellent for fishing purposes and even for leisurely cruising abilities, Catamarans are being built for various purposes across the world.

Related Read: Main Types of Catamarans Used in the Shipping World

6. Cuddy Cabins Boats

Well-suited for fishing, yachting, sailing and other water sports, Cuddy Cabins Boats is one of the most family-friendly vessels.

Featuring a closed deck over the boat’s bow, the boat allows a convenient storage space and easy navigation. The cuddy cabin boats are usually built of fibreglass and aluminium, and the minimum length is around 4.75 meters.

7. Centre Console Boats

Essentially a boat that features a hull with no cabin or foredeck and the helm station in the centre of the boat, Centre Consoles are great fishing platforms.

These boats are ideal for sports fishing and work in harsh offshore waterways with plenty of ocean fish. The essential equipment consists of bait wells, gunwale rod holders, fish lockers and outriggers, to name a few.

In addition, the deck provides a powerful insulation system for icing the fish storage.

Related Read: Lafayette – The World’s Biggest Ship for Fish Processing

8. Houseboats

There are houseboats of different shapes and sizes worldwide, offering the luxury of living on water and providing excellent recreational and holiday accommodation facilities.

Houseboats, also known as Float house, incorporate broad flooring and modern amenities such as entertainment, fine dining, and proper sleeping arrangements.

The boats offer fun activities like relaxed cruising, water sports, family sailing etc. While most of the houseboats are motorized, there are boats incapable of operating under their own power since they are usually kept stationary at a location.

Related Read: Top 10 Largest Cruise Ships in 2017

9. Trawler Boats

With features including a displacement hull and fuel-efficient engines, trawlers are intended to smoothly manoeuvre through the water bodies without exhausting much horsepower or consuming excessive fuel.

This quality makes the trawler a brilliant option for long-range cruising activities, as all modern facilities can be found aboard the boat.

10. Cabin Cruiser Boats

Offering all the essential features of a home, Cabin Cruiser boats are great for relaxed sailing. Designed with a galley and a berth, these boats offer modern comforts like heaters, air conditioners, and power generators.

In addition to a deep-V bottom, the Cabin Cruisers employ a secure shaft drive mechanism plus rudder steering and therefore are mainly suited for movement in the salty water.

11. Game boats

Powered by diesel or petrol engines, these fibreglass boats are large in measurement and are useful for the game fish pursuit, especially pelagic fishes like tuna and marlin.

Equipped with sleeping berths, plumbing systems, and cooking galleys, these boats allow passengers to continue their activities for a couple of days or more.

12. Motor Yacht Boats

The latest design in the evolution of boats, the motor yacht, is a watercraft primarily used for leisure activities. The motor yacht has a standard length of 12m and above, with one or two diesel engines per navigation requirements in inland waters or the oceans.

The motor yacht can vouchsafe for an enjoyable family trip for a long period of time that it sails on the water. There are different types of yachts in the market, including day sailing yachts, weekender yachts, cruising yachts, luxury sailing yachts etc. to meet the various requirements.

13. Personal Watercraft (PWC) Boats

The PWC boats, also known as water scooters and jetski, are customized boats for adventurous activities. This recreational watercraft allows individuals to explore the waters at their own ease and participate in games such as water-skiing and sports fishing, etc. There are two types of PWCs – “sit down” and “stand-up” models; while the former is intended for two or more people, the latter can only be used by a single rider.

14. Runabout Boats

Capable of accommodating four and eight people, Runabout Boats are typically used in racing, fishing, water skiing, etc. The movement of these open boats is controlled by a steering wheel and forward controls, as located behind a windscreen. Runabouts are usually declared entry-level vessels for casual sports and boating activities.

15. Jet Boats

Powered by a jet of water ejected from behind the vessel, Jet Boat is notable for its high manoeuvrability. The structure of a jet boat is quite similar to that of a bow-rider, as it offers a lot of seating areas and a swimming platform. In addition, the advanced propulsion system is securely enwrapped in the hull to protect it from any external damage.

16. Wakeboard/ Ski Boats

The wakeboard boats and the ski boats look quite the same but differ in their fields of action. The inboard ski boats require a powerful range of acceleration, and the shape of the engine and propeller accentuates it. On the other hand, the inboard wakeboards feature a V drive engine system, deep hulls, and a huge wake to set in motion.

17. Banana Boats

A banana boat is a type of watercraft that is solely utilized for recreational activities and family entertainment. As the name suggests, it is a banana-shaped inflatable watercraft and easily floats on water. It does not have an inbuilt motor system. A banana boat has the capacity to seat around three to ten people. Interestingly, at the same, the vessels being used primarily for the transportation of bananas as cargo is also called Banana boats.

Related Read: Top 10 Most Expensive Private Yachts In The World

18. Lifeboats

In emergencies, lifeboats come to the rescue! The lifeboats are small watercraft attached to bigger vessels like cruises, and their main function is to carry passengers to a secure area if the concerned vessel is met with an accident. The lifeboats are well-equipped with immediate food and water supplies and other necessities to pacify the frightened voyagers in case of a shipwreck.

Related Read: Common Reasons for Ship’s Lifeboat Engine Starting Failure

19. Pontoon Boat

Used popularly for inland waters and other small water bodies, Pontoon boats are flattish in shape, relying on tubes (pontoons) to float on the water. Typically, the length of the Pontoon boat ranges from 15-30 ft with a shallow draft. It consists of multiple aluminium tubes supporting the broad platform providing excellent stability.

They are used for recreational activities like cruising and fishing etc. The shape of a Pontoon boat helps designers plan the seating arrangements and other facilities according to the requirements.

20. Sedan Bridge Boat

Typically ranging from about 35–65 feet in length, Sedan Bridge Boat by Sea Ray Company offers the pleasure of excellent visibility to the navigator. With an extended bridge area, the boat makes the passengers feel like a big ship bridge and offers accommodations down below to suit extended stays on the water.

Apart from the above-mentioned ones, several other types of boats are also available in the market.

The list of the boats continues with vessels such as Skiff or Jon Boats, Hydrofoil boats, Cigarette boats, Cuddy Boats, Tug Boats, High-Speed Crafts, Bumper Boats, Pilot Boat, Fire Boat, Well boats, Kayak, Bay or Flat Boats, All-Purpose fishing Boats, Deck Boats, High-Performance Boats, Rafts, Surfboats, Narrowboats, Folding Boats, Log Boats, Go-fast Boats, Catboats, Junk Boats, Ferry Boats, Canoe Boats, U-boats, Dory boats etc.

Over to you…

If you think any other type of boat should be added to this list, let’s know in the comments below.

You might also like to read:

• A Guide To Types of Ships
• Types of Sailboats: A Comprehensive Classification
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Disclaimer: The authors’ views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendation on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared or used in any form without the permission of the author and Marine Insight. 

The Ultimate Guide to Different Types of Boats – Top 20 appeared first on Marine Insight - The Maritime Industry Guide

Offshore vessels are ships specifically serving operational purposes such as oil exploration and construction work on the high seas.

There are a variety of offshore vessels which not only help in the exploration and drilling of oil but also provide necessary supplies to the excavation and construction units located on the high seas.

Offshore ships also provide the transiting and relieving of crewing personnel to and from the high seas’ operational arenas, as and when necessitated.

As mentioned above, the denotation of offshore vessels is a collective reference and, as such, includes a wide array of vessels employed in the high-seas sector. They can be classified into the following main groups:

• Oil Exploration and Drilling Vessels
• Offshore Support Vessels
• Offshore Production Vessels
• Construction/Special Purpose Vessels

Each of these categories comprises a variety of vessels.

Oil Exploration and Drilling Vessels

Oil exploration vessels, as the name suggests, help in the exploration and drilling of oil on high seas. The main types of exploration vessels are:

• Drillship
• Jack Up Vessels
• Semi-submersible Vessels 
• Offshore barge
• Floating Platforms
• Tenders

Offshore Support Vessels

Certain offshore vessels provide the manpower and technical reinforcement required so that the operational processes on the high seas continue smoothly and without any undesired interruptions. Such vessels are called as ‘offshore support vessels.’

Offshore supply vessels transport the required structural components to the designated high seas sector and assist in supplying freight as well. The constructional aspect of these vessels can be purpose-built to suit the operational demands.

Some of the main types of offshore support vessels are:

• Anchor Handling Tug Vessel (AHTV)
• Seismic Vessel
• Platform Supply Vessels (PSVs)
• Well Intervention Vessel
• Accommodation Ships

Offshore Production Vessels

Offshore production vessels are those vessels that help in the production processes in the drilling units in the high seas. FPSOs (Floating, Production, Storage and Offloading) can be enumerated as an example of these offshore ships. The main types of these vessels are:

• Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO)
• Single Point Anchor Reservoir (SPAR) platform
• Shuttle Tankers
• Tension Leg Platform (TLP)

Offshore Construction Vessel

Ships that primarily aid in constructing various high-seas structures are offshore construction vessels.

Other offshore vessels’  of this type also include anchorage and tugging assistance and ships that help position deep sub-water cable and piping lines.

The main types are:

• Diving Support Vessel
• Crane Vessel
• Pipe Laying Vessel

In addition, the variances of ships that provide aid in emergencies on the high seas and those types of vessels that undertake research and analysis activities on the high seas are also included under the offshore vessels’ classification.

The ever-growing need to explore and suitably harness the potential of the high seas has led to a huge growth in the need and demand for offshore ships.

Coupled with the advantages of technological research and suitably resulting developments, the present-day fleet of offshore vessels worldwide portrays the huge strides taken in the maritime sector.

Some famous offshore vessels are:

• North Sea Giant – World’s Tallest Offshore Vessel
• Neptune – Powerful Jack-up Vessel
• Type o – Semi-submersible heavy transport vessel (SSHTV)
• Bourbon Front Platform supply vessel
• Solitaire – The Largest Pipe Laying Vessel in the World

References: gulfmark, bumiarmada

What are Offshore Vessels? appeared first on Marine Insight - The Maritime Industry Guide

For the last few decades, the context of the energy crisis has been making headlines all around the world. With the expanding demand of the ever-increasing population across burgeoning economies all around the globe, it is absolutely real that the non-renewable sources of energy are gradually depleting at a very alarming rate.

By non-renewable sources of energy, we simply mean the sources of energy that are derived from natural reserves of fossils and other organic components, such as petroleum products like diesel, petrol, or various types of natural gases, which make up the lion’s share of the gross consumption around the globe. 

So for the last several years, numerous sectors worldwide have scoured alternatives to conventional energy modes or the so-called non-renewable resources. They include wind energy, tidal energy, solar energy, hydraulic energy, and nuclear power. 

These have been placed under the bracket of so-called renewable resources. While wind, tidal, solar, and hydel power can be derived infinitely and boundlessly from natural sources of nature, nuclear power cannot be called a 100% natural means of renewable energy. 

Nuclear power is derived from chemical reactions that involve limited nuclear substances that are reacted under special conditions. While nuclear energy is coined as a ‘clean source of energy, it cannot be considered at par with the other natural renewable means due to the following reasons: 

They are expensive and continual procurement comes at a hefty cost for any kind of process; they require even more expensive paraphernalia and conditions for exploitation; and last but not least, they cannot be considered entirely safe, whether in terms of an environmental context or the process which involves their production itself. 

Though speaking of the environment, it can still be considered much cleaner than the conventional carbon-based renewable energy sources mentioned above. However, though they cannot be called ‘inexhaustible’ or entirely renewable, they are still very much ‘abundant’. They have no signs of shortage, a pressing issue for conventional means. So, nuclear power can be considered something between renewable and non-renewable. 

Ships are also not an exception from the economic sectors switching over to renewable energy sources. The pollution from global shipping traffic has been a topic of big discussion over the past several years. Water transport accounts for almost 3% of global carbon emissions and is expected to escalate at an alarming rate by 2050 if no action is implemented. 

Furthermore, it also contributes to an alarming 20-30% of nitrous and about 10% of sulphur-based pollution worldwide. International Maritime Organization (IMO) has been working around the clock to collaborate with shipping industry stakeholders, statutory bodies, environmental agencies, and governmental bodies to curb emissions from ships globally. Its latest widely-discussed ambitious goal is to curb ships’ emissions by at least 40% by the forthcoming 2030 and a whopping 70% by 2050.  

So, several commercial ships have been converting to nuclear-based propulsion over the past few years as a major step in containing emissions and adhering to international guidelines without compromising on the profits and supply chain. Military and other special purpose vessels are also entering into the foray. 

While many new building vessels have been designed as nuclear vessels, several old and existing vessels are also converting from conventional propulsion to nuclear means. Some ships also have implemented a dual option of nuclear and traditional means of propulsion and are coined as ‘Hybrid’ vessels. 

Nuclear Propulsion

Recapitulating, a nuclear ship is a vessel that runs on nuclear means of power, either fully or partially. A nuclear vessel propulsion plant essentially utilises the heat energy generated from specialised nuclear reactors and, in turn, converts it into mechanical and electrical energy required to rotate its propulsive components either directly or indirectly through intermediate electrical motors and generators. 

The framework of nuclear propulsion is almost the same as that of conventional means of propulsions, with the chief difference being the source of the heat energy generated. In traditional means, the calorific value of the energy present in the renewable means of fuel sources such as diesel or coal (mostly in earlier days) is tapped to produce heat energy. On the other hand, nuclear vessels exploit the energy from a nuclear reaction. 

Now, the question arises: how does a nuclear reaction take place? The answer is that the same principle for nuclear reaction used elsewhere, like in nuclear power plants or stations, is utilised in the case of vessels as well. 

Though we do not go deep into the chemistry of nuclear power generation and reactions, it can be noted that the primary process of nuclear reaction is fission. This is technically opposite to fusion which is used to define the combination of two or more substances into one. 

Fission, on the other hand, is the disintegration of atoms to form discrete elements, and the process involved in this produces an immense amount of heat energy from a nuclear point of view. This released energy index, if adequately exploited, can be hugely beneficial in generating a huge amount of power. 

Now, the nuclear reaction needs to be carried out in a proper environment. The nuclear reactor is the main component of any nuclear power plant, whether land-based or on ships. A nuclear power plant essentially contains and controls the entire nuclear reaction under controlled temperature, pressure and other conditions befitting to carry out such processes. Furthermore, they are also responsible for storing the energy required to be transmitted to generate electrical energy. Nuclear reactors, also known as the ‘heart of any nuclear power plant’, can be costly and are available commercially. So, ships employ specialised reactors. 

Now, the nuclear reaction entirely involves fuel, mainly a special breed of the chemical radioactive or nuclear substance known as Uranium- U 235. Though other nuclear substances, such as Plutonium, are also sometimes used, U-235 remains the most preferred and used one. In a typical design for a nuclear reactor, this uranium is stored in an array of sealed metal tubes known as fuel rods or the reactor assembly.

 Depending on the size and production capacity of the reactor, the number of such rods can range from around 100 to a few hundred. These usually make up what is known as the core of the reactor. The main nuclear reaction initially occurs within this core assembly at an uncontrolled and rapid rate. Thus, they must be controlled properly to prevent explosions due to overheating or unbridled reactivity of the fission. 

These fuel rods are immersed in water which is the coolant for the fuel assembly. As fission occurs with these fuel rods, the water controls the heat index produced by the chain reactions. At this juncture, it is essential to know that all nuclear reactions, by nature, are essentially chain reactions which continue infinitely if not controlled under proper conditions. 

The heat absorbed by the water at very high temperatures converts it into steam, akin to traditional means, which is then tapped to produce mechanical energy for driving in-built turbines, which in turn is mostly converted into electrical energy required for propulsion and other means of consumption. In some cases, the mechanical energy can be directly tapped into the propeller assembly for direct-drive power generation. 

Mechanical to electrical power is often converted through turbo-electric systems or hybrid turbines. Ships employing such systems are known as dual or hybrid nuclear-electric propulsion vessels. 

In a nutshell, the components of any nuclear power plant are mostly: 

• Reactor
• Steam Generator
• Coolant Pressurisation system
• Purification System cooler
• Turbine
• Condenser
• Feed Water Supply system
• Coolant lines and piping 
• Containment systems 

In brief, there are mainly two kinds of nuclear reactors mostly used:

• Pressurized Water Reactors 
• Boiling Water Reactors

In pressurised water reactors, the feed water is pumped continuously at a steady rate and high pressure to the core or assembly. This essentially prevents the water from boiling off. After being exposed to the nuclear fission process, this heated water is pumped and channelised into an array of water tubes stacked into what is known as the heat exchanger. 

Now, water from another fresh supply source is put inside this exchanger, which gets heated from the heated water tubes. This heated water then boils to steam that generates mechanical energy to drive turbines and other electrical systems. After losing heat, the entrapped heated water inside the tubes is recirculated back to the reactor for reheating, and the cycle is continuously repeated as required. 

On the other hand, in boiling water reactors, the process is relatively simpler. Here water from only one source is drawn continuously and directly to the reactor without any exclusive heat exchanger and boiled off at very high temperatures, thanks to the fission reaction. The steam generated is straightaway directed to a turbine to generate electricity. The remaining steam is then condensed to liquid form and reused for heating. 

Nuclear Reactor in a Ship

The nuclear reactor used in ships is quite different from land-based ones. While large terrestrial nuclear power plants are required to produce up to thousands of megawatts of electrical power to cater to monumental power requirements over vast areas, ships require relatively limited power. 

Furthermore, the volume within the hull is limited in a vessel, and the reactor needs to be confined within restricted spaces. So, the nuclear power plant within a vessel is much smaller for all practical purposes. Often vessels used scaled-down reactor types known as Small Modular Reactors (SMRs). These reactors are mainly pressurised and designed to be more compact. 

Furthermore, since the size of a reactor is small, for better efficiency of the reactions, the nuclear fuel used is of a much more high-grade type. Usually, higher concentration breeds of Uranium 235 or Uranium 238 are used. Though some vessels recharge the feed water from seawater, some vessels use a limited amount of water that is continuously condensed and recirculated back. 

As the reactor is small and needs to cater to a continuous service throughout the life of a vessel, the stresses generated mechanically and from critical levels of the heating index over a small area are quite high. So, the design of such reactors is done meticulously with high-grade materials to not only withstand high levels of stress but also sustain the nuclear reaction effects throughout the service life of the vessels under confined conditions. 

An ideal nuclear reactor design in a vessel must be durable, reliable, compact, and, most importantly, safe. However, due to lesser space constraints, the thermal efficiency of a reactor in a vessel is always less compared to land-based ones, however competent the design may be.   

Advantages and Disadvantages Of A Nuclear-Powered Vessel

As they say, there are always two sides to a coin. So, the advantages and disadvantages of a nuclear-powered ship may be as follows: 

• Advantages
  • They require almost no refuelling and are thus very cost-effective. Usually, the fuel stored in the reactor is sufficient to cater for up to 20-30 years of a vessel’s service life. Also, the amount of fuel to be carried is far lesser. From an economic standpoint, this is much more advantageous. 
  • Due to the high efficiency of the reactions, the performance and propulsive efficiency are higher than conventional means. So, these vessels have larger speeds and far lower emissions levels. 
  • Nuclear reactions require no influx of free air for combustion. They are advantageous in freezing climates, especially for submarines that frequently do not need to go above water levels to air. In ice-class vessels and submarines, nuclear propulsion also has the upper hand for powering through ice covers.  
  • Low emission levels, as discussed above. 
• Disadvantages
  • Hazards and risks associated with nuclear phenomena.
  • High costs of installation and maintenance. 
  • Corrosion, high degrees of stress, vibration and other problems associated with the reactors. 

However, with time, more vessels had been going nuclear since its advent more than half a century ago. A majority of modern defence submarines are nuclear-powered. After US and Russia, countries like India, the UK, and China are also increasingly opting for nuclear-powered ships and submarines. It can be argued that the number of nuclear vessels shall increase manifold in the times to come. 

You might also like to read-

• Understanding Nuclear Marine Propulsion
• World’s First Zero Emission Vessel- E/S Orcelle
• NS Savannah – The World’s First Nuclear Merchant Ship
• MV Beluga Gravitation: A Powerful Multipurpose Vessel
• What is an Automated Mutual Assistance Vessel Rescue System (AMVER)?

Disclaimer: The author’s views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendations on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared, or used in any form without the permission of the author and Marine Insight.

What Are Nuclear Vessels? appeared first on Marine Insight - The Maritime Industry Guide

A Very large crude carrier and an ultra-large crude carrier are two examples of the different types of oil tankers. These oil tankers are extremely important in the shipping industry, for they help to transport huge quantities of crude oil across the oceans and seas.

Dead Weight Tonnage (DWT) is the measure of weight when it comes to tankers. In terms of oil tankers like very large crude carriers or ultra-large crude carriers, the DWT represents the maximum quantity of DWT that can be carried. The terms ‘very large’ and ‘ultra large’ are in fact categorisations of the oil tankers which are included in the category of being ‘large.’

It has to be noted that tankers are basically divided into two types: the product tanker and the crude tanker. The product tanker is designed to ferry cargo like petroleum and other refined products that are produced from crude oil, from the industrial plants to the final markets for selling.

This being the case, product tankers are generally smaller and more compact as compared to crude tankers which are bulkier and huger. The bulk and the hugeness of a crude tanker help to carry more containers and barrels of crude oil. However, it has to be noted that there are six main classifications of crude tankers:

• Tankers that are classified as being under General Range
• Tankers that are classified as being under Medium Range
• Tankers that are classified as being under Large Range 1
• Large Range 2 Tankers
• Very Large Crude Carrier
• Ultra Large Crude Carrier

A very large crude carrier (VLCC) has a deadweight tonnage or cargo-carrying capacity ranking up to 250,000 tons. On the other hand, an ultra-large crude carrier (ULCC) has a DWT of anything between 250,000 to 500,000 tons. In simple terms, it can be said that these two types of oil tankers ferry about two billion oil containers and barrels.

Carrying such a heavy weight would not only ensure that many oil containers are being transported, but it would also ensure that a limited number of trips are taken to ferry a specified number of containers. A very large crude carrier and an ultra-large crude carrier are also known as ‘supertankers’ because of their mammoth weight-carrying capacity.

The Shell Oil Company first designed the weighing system that brought into use the terminology of ‘very large crude carrier’ and ‘ultra large crude carrier.’ As per the Average Freight Rate Assessment system, the denominations of oil tankers were based on the concept of DWT and the above listed oil tankers classification was introduced. The method adopted was very successful as tankers could be specified more easily on the basis of their cargo-carrying capacity and thereby reduce accidents that could be caused due to excessive cargo.

Tankers and, more specifically oil tankers are built for a very important purpose. With the help of oil tankers like a very large crude carrier or an ultra-large crude carrier, the role and scope of oil tankers become far more feasible. Development is a major factor in today’s times. In order to facilitate the better development of human civilization, it is relevant that very large crude carriers and ultra-large crude carriers are used appropriately and successfully.

You may also like to read:

• What Is A Floating Storage Regasification Unit (FSRU)? 
• What Are Gas Tanker Ships – Everything You Wanted To Know
• Understanding Design Of Oil Tanker Ships
• What are Tanker Ships?
• Different Types of Tankers: Extensive Classification of Tanker Ships

Disclaimer: The authors’ views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendations on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared, or used in any form without the permission of the author and Marine Insight.

What are Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC) and Ultra Large Crude Carrier (ULCC)? appeared first on Marine Insight - The Maritime Industry Guide

A hospital ship is designed and constructed to serve as a medical facility similar to hospitals, nursing homes, or other healthcare infrastructure. In other words, a hospital ship replicates a land-based comprehensive medical facility, whose features depend on size, type and requirement.

The need for hospital ships dates back centuries, even before the World Wars, when warfare and battle at different locations around the world warranted the construction of these special types of vessels. So, since then, hospital ships were mainly built as military vessels to serve as makeshift healthcare facilities required during times of crisis like wars or international conflicts when a large number of people, both armed forces and civilians, need to be treated as a result of wounds, injuries, and other various health-related problems.

However, sometime back, during the gruelling COVID-19 pandemic that gripped the world, the need for hospital ships again augmented unprecedentedly. During worse times of the pandemic, as hospitals got overwhelmed, many vessels, both dedicated military ones already serving as hospital ships and several passenger and commercial vessels, were temporarily or permanently converted to hospital ships.

In the United States and other European countries like Italy or France, where the virus took a heavy toll, the need for hospital ships escalated significantly. Even after the pandemic, the Russia-Ukraine conflict has again entailed an uptick in hospital ships as several people from both sides, including civilians and military, are badly affected.

Generally, most hospital ships are converted from existing commercial or military vessels, while some are indigenously built. Depending on the requirement, they vary in size and range. Externally, they are primarily white and bear the signatory red cross symbol on their paintwork, like ambulances or medical facilities. They take a special red-cross flag in addition to their classification flag.

Design and Construction of Hospital Ships

As most hospital ships are mainly derived from existing commercial or military vessels, they do not have much difference in their structural design. From a design point of view, they do not have any requirements for speed or power as they are in-situ treatment facilities that serve as long-term care centres and do not need to adhere to a specific timeline.

However, in times of crisis, they may require additional speed or power to reach places of demand for the onboarding of patients and medical crew on an urgent basis. While commercial vessels (mostly tankers or bulk carriers) are low-speed, those made out of older passenger or military vessels have higher speeds, as we know.

The main requirements for hospital ships

Availability of adequate space

In terms of space, we mean the necessary and adequate volumes for the proper accommodation of patients, health workers, medical crew, and of course, all the required equipment, paraphernalia and consumables like medicines, chemicals, or drugs on board.

For instance, when exhausted in a land-based hospital or care facility, any emergency drug or medication can easily be procured from anywhere. In contrast, a hospital ship needs sufficient space to stowage drugs, medicines, chemicals, and other essential consumables and products required in the healthcare sector.

A hospital ship needs to de-port at any shore to re-load the indispensables during long-term demands arising during a pandemic, long-term war or conflict.

Furthermore, the nature of arrangements within a hospital ship is also an utmost priority to a designer. Centralisation and optimisation of the available spaces based on requirements and degree of criticality are crucial to enhance the design. For instance, the surgery or critical care department should be arranged within a single level or tier.

Similar to land-based hospitals, hospital ships have an extensive arrangement of different spaces like medical facilities, intensive care, general ward, operating rooms, X-Ray, screening centres, and so on. Other accommodation spaces, including dining and utility spaces, are also allocated for the medical crew and staff, along with the vessel’s staff in general, like general cargo vessels. The plans for fire safety, control, and insulation are given special considerations for containment and safe evacuation in case of an outbreak.

Utility

In terms of utility, we mean the suitable environment and conditions replicating a full-fledged medical facility. This may range from air-conditioning to refrigeration necessary for various drugs and chemicals, from high electrical power consumption as expected for the continual running of multiple systems and equipment to oxygen purification plants required for high-level oxygen supply. Moreover, another essential aspect in the design of hospital ships is accessibility.

This is for convenience in the mobility of patients and all forms of healthcare workers from one place to another with ease and in short periods as and when required, based on the nature of the emergency. Accessibility between different levels is also crucial. Hospital ships have advanced ramps and elevators for improved mobility of patients and healthcare workers from one place to another. Hospital Ships are also characteristic of improved ventilation systems.

Stability and Seakeeping

This is of paramount importance for hospital ships. Patients receiving treatment or incapacitated people needing exceptional support are already in a tenuous state of health. So, if this is further aggravated by the vessel’s behaviour en route, that is a severe problem.

More critically, during surgeries, there should not be any inconvenience or disturbance regarding the vessel’s stability, as that may cost a life! Hence, for all practical purposes, hospital ships are designed, built or refitted, and operated in such a way that it remains on the greater conservative side of the design philosophy of vessels like passenger ships. The hospital ships should be least responsive to seakeeping and stability changes among all forms of ships.

In technical terms, hospital ships should aim to have the least roll periods. This amounts to a higher degree of statical as well as dynamic stability. While only some hospital shops are indigenously built, most are retrofitted and converted from existing ones like cargo vessels and passenger ferries.

From a design point of view, passenger ships may be inherently stable. However, cargo vessels need to be equipped with additional systems like anti-roll mechanisms and structural refits to reduce the effect of rough seas. Anti-roll tanks, fin stabilisers, gyro stabilisers, bilge keels and thruster systems are incorporated in hospital ships on a wide scale.

Other than external and additionally installed means, these kinds of ships’ weight distribution is taken care of through the proper disposition of spaces and ballast tanks. Often in previously existing cargo ships, the entire tankage is drastically altered to cater to the improved stability characteristics of the vessel. As speed is not a very big priority of the vessel once again, often this is compromised by increasing the weights and ballasting within suitable limits.

However, the main purpose of hospital ships is to house patients, medical staff and crew, so a large superstructure must be built. Often the superstructure is rebuilt or extended to suit the requirements of retrofitted vessels like tankers or bulk carriers.

So, as the high superstructure cannot be avoided, this becomes an issue from the point of view of stability. Hence, designers have to carefully optimise the various parameters of stability meticulously. The vertical accelerations are also to be kept at a minimum.

In terms of operations, hospital ships mostly try to avoid rough sea states. However, in the case of these sea states, they have all means to improve the seakeeping characteristics in the best way possible. Critical tasks like surgeries should be avoided during inclement weather conditions. Even at zero-speed conditions, seakeeping characteristics are aimed to be kept to a maximum level.

Structural Needs

From a structural point of view, hospital ships are typical to cargo or other general-purpose carriers. Not much is done to improve the overall hull structure for converted vessels in good condition as the saved costs can be optimised on higher expenditures on the internal facilities and systems on board. However, additional levels of strengthening are present for hospital ships under the military flag as per design regulations.

Resistance, power, endurance, and electricity

As speed requirements are low, the power requirements to achieve higher speed levels are not very important. However, power to sustain hotel loads is given utmost priority. The onboard power consumption for various facilities and systems is very high. So, several powering sources of high rating is present. Provisions for standby and emergency power and means of backup supply like gensets, DG sets, etc., are installed in high numbers.

Emergency gensets should be capable of supplying power even in a total blackout state and when the vessel’s main propulsion system is stalled to continue supporting the patients on board. For the calculated hotel load consumption, a safety margin of at least 10% surplus is given for all practical purposes.

Now, high values of power consumption amount to higher consumption of fuel. So, adequate provisions for fuel, along with surplus amounts, are catered for. Moreover, from a design point of view, the endurance of hospital ships is accounted for at a much higher margin considering worst-case scenarios when the vessel needs to be afloat for prolonged periods and cater for patients at total capacity. Thus, tankage for fuel supplies and storage is given very high priority.

As for the main propulsion systems of the vessel, conventional means of propulsion are preferred, mostly for retrofitted or converted vessels. However, modern designs feature pod propulsor or azimuth propulsors. As discussed above, the mechanisms for higher stability and seakeeping are present in all hospital ships.

You might also like to read-

• What are Tug Boats: Different Types And Uses
• Different Types Of Roll-On Roll-Off Ships
• Watch: Global Mercy – World’s Largest NGO Hospital Ship Unveiled
• Hospital Ship Armenia: The Most Horrifying Incident during the World War
• What Are Ship Portholes?
• What are Mercy Ships?

Disclaimer: The authors’ views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendations on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

What is A Hospital Ship? appeared first on Marine Insight - The Maritime Industry Guide

Ships, especially the ones for intercontinental travel, traverse thousands of nautical miles from one port of call to another across large stretches of oceans. Moreover, ships are massive structures that require a lot of power to propel themselves after overcoming the values of resistance from the surrounding water, both as frictional as well as those arising from the wave phenomena constantly associated with seas and oceans.

Furthermore, as they must sail for days at a stretch, they presuppose a continuous power supply to cater to their diverse consumption requirements for operations, sustenance, and amenities. And whenever it comes to the expense of power for any reason, the one thing that immediately pops into mind is fuel or the supply source required. Thus,  a vessel requires a lot of fuel to be stored in its fuel tanks throughout its voyage. 

Now, when it comes to storage or reserve, there is never something called sufficient or safe. How about this simple yet exciting example?

You take your car out for a classic long road trip on a long weekend to some favourite destination. Before leaving, you top up your gas tank to its full capacity and start. You are confident that you will encounter numerous gas stations or petrol pumps/ gas stations where you can fill your tank anytime. But, suppose, out of callousness or the unpleasant and unexpected betrayal of your so-called reliable GPS map, you get lost and find yourself moving in circles on some unnamed dark road. Your tank is almost empty, and soon your car comes to a standstill! 

To make things worse, your phone is also not within network coverage for seeking any help! Soon you may find a bear creeping out of nowhere and coming right in front of your window, or worse, a gang of thugs besieging your car, armed with guns and knives!

If your trip is long and you sincerely want to avoid these horrifying tales, it is wise enough to keep a barrel or, at least, a jar of fuel based on your car size and the span of your journey. The risks associated with any scenario should be considered based on the worst cases feasible. Of course, by the stroke of sheer bad luck, if you have multiple flat tires or a broken-down engine, then you can’t help it! 

Similarly, ships treading long distances have a huge fuel consumption, as said. This consumption depends on several factors like ship type, size, length of voyage, route, weather conditions, etc. An average-sized cargo vessel consumes roughly over 100 metric tonnes of voyage per day en route its voyage. 

For passenger ships, this value is higher for a same-sized vessel as they entail a very high requirement for power supply for catering to the passengers and amenities onboard, which in technical terms is said to be hotel loads. A large transcontinental passenger ship requires a few hundred metric tonnes of fuel to be expended daily! Similarly, a large crude oil tanker requires several hundred metric tonnes of fuel consumption, owing to its size and various onboard systems, like heating systems. 

The fuel oil capacity and the corresponding tankage are decided at the primitive stages of the design by a designer based on factors like size or displacement, engine type, speed, and, most importantly, range. The range is the maximum possible distance from the shore a vessel can travel at full load and without refuelling at full capacity.

 So, suppose a vessel has a design range R. In that case, it is permitted to travel to ports of call within a nautical radius of that particular range R. This estimation of a range is done during the design stage, also keeping in mind some margin of safety that keeps its value lower than what the vessel may be technically capable of travelling at total tank capacity. 

The Concept Of Bunker Ships

While the tankage capacity of vessels is self-sufficient right from the design stages to operate within the given range of distance, situations of difficulty or exceptions are never unavoidable. A vessel during its design lifetime can be very much in need of urgent midsea refuelling. 

The reasons can be myriad, like exhaustion of fuel due to extra expenditure or onboard loads, a detour from its scheduled route owing to inclement weather, rough seas or other safety concerns, the need to travel extra miles attributing to some difficult requirement, and most importantly, unexpected loss of fuel from a tank or tanks due to accidental damage or breach. Well, what can be done in such cases? 

A vessel with a particular design value displacement cannot afford to carry excess fuel onboard. Though many designs have provisions for storing surplus or extra fuel tanks, all those are a part of the onboard capacity itself, and depletion of those is often considered a part of risk scenarios. So, the answer is the supply of fuel from external sources midsea. And when it comes to external sources refer to oil-carrying vessels that supply the fuel and are called bunker ships. 

The concept is similar to midair jet refuelling for fighter, military, cargo, and even passenger aeroplanes when needed. Midair refuelling is a far more complicated process as this takes place at very high altitudes when both the supply and recipient aircraft are flying at such high speeds. It is also a considerably critical process in vessels, but it is comparatively easier as both vessels float on the same water surface. They can easily reduce their speeds or even come to a temporary halt during the refuelling process. 

So, bunker ships are small tankers transporting and carrying bunker fuel used for ship propulsion. They can transfer fuel to a recipient’s vessel while on a voyage. One important point is that tankers transporting marine fuel oil for mass supply or distribution at ports are “not” bunker ships. Bunker ships transport marine or other associated fuels required for a vessel operation, like lubes, directly to a vessel. 

Transferring these fuels to a sailing or afloat ship from its storage is known as “bunkering.” So, while bunker ships are widely used for midsea fuelling, they are used for fuelling ships at the shore or close to shore and where supplies may be scarce. The name bunker or bunkering can be traced back to the word “Bunk”, which has its roots in the Scottish dialect and refers to a reserve or something which is surplus. 

The concept of bunkering was mainly predominant for warships, especially during the World Wars when the naval fleet all over the world was actively involved in maritime warfare or supplied and hence required to be continuously replenished with fuel for operation and service around the clock. Moreover, as many parts of the globe were then adversely struck by a disrupted supply of fuels, bunker ships were built and used extensively as short-term reserves to supply vessels with fuel when required. 

However, the concept of ‘bunkering’ also ramified other commercial and passenger vessels. One recent instance where bunkering gained more prominence was during the COVID-19 pandemic when global supplies were badly bludgeoned everywhere, including fuel, and coupled with the ‘overconsumption’ of fuels reserves by the US and many European countries, tending to attend surplus self-sufficiency in the wake of the plunging barrel rates and increasing scarcity in tandem left several other maritime nations to seek other means like bunkering for temporary respite. 

Also, during the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine, the two nations resorted to bunkering their naval vessels despite having a comfortable reserve self-sufficiency.   

A Brief Glance At Bunker Ships

Bunker ships are designed and built as tankers where the fuel oils are stored in dedicated tanks. Often, they have systems for heating onboard, especially in colder climates. As they carry refined petroleum products, inflammability is always a risk, and thus special care is taken to prevent fire outbreaks. 

Mostly they carry the common types of fuels used in vessels like HFO, Marine Diesel Oil, Gasoline, lube, and sometimes LNG for ships propelling on the latter for direct or hybrid propulsion. They have a well-designed network of pipings for loading the fuels and transferring them to other vessels. 

Bunker Ships are usually not very large, and their tankage capacities range from 2000 MT to 10000 MT for larger supplies. As they follow traditional tanker design, they are double hulls. They may have single or double-screw propulsion. Though hull forms may vary widely, they commonly have chined or spoon-shaped bows. The tank arrangements are highly important as they carry highly flammable fuels, especially for vessels carrying multiple variants of liquid bunkers that must be appropriately segregated based on flashpoints. 

In naval terms, this bunkering process at sea is called Underway Replenishment. While refuelling, the alignment of the supply or bunker vessel and the recipient’s vessel can be side-to-side or longitudinal. The supply vessel may be positioned forward or aft of the receiving end. 

You might also like to read-

• Fuel Oil Change Over Procedure for Ship’s Main and Auxiliary Engines
• What Procedure Does Master Follow For Handing-Over Of Ship’s Command?
• The Ultimate Guide to Fuel Oil Bunkering Process on Ships
• Different Types Of Sterns Used For Ships
• How To Reduce Bunker Spend Of Your Ships – 9 Important Points

Disclaimer: The authors’ views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendations on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared, or used in any form without the permission of the author and Marine Insight.

What Are Bunker Ships? appeared first on Marine Insight - The Maritime Industry Guide